1.1. 1902-1938: The Early Period
What the State is Seeking from Education
The broader purpose of this digital project is aimed at reconstructing the history of museums sanctioned by the Saudi government since the twentieth century. However, to understand the early development of cultural institutions – such as museums – in Saudi Arabia a tracing of the state’s early history of education is necessary. This early history of the Saudi state is deeply embedded within the political unification of the Arabian Peninsula under King Abdulaziz ibn Saud.
A close reading of the writings of the Sultan of Najd, Abdulaziz bin Saud, published in the weekly newsletter of Umm Al Qura, provides a compelling window into the early history of the modern state.[1] As the founder of the Third, and contiguous Saudi State, Abdulaziz bin Saud – who would come to be known as the Sultan of the Arabian Peninsula and the Hejaz until 1930 – used this public forum to address all those who sought to counsel him in his political unification endeavors under the banners of Islam and Arab identity.[2] The substance of these proclamations reveals a clear message on the role and meaning of education within the nascent political order.
The weekly digest included statements from the Sultan and his highest religious council members.[3] These publications described the state of Ibn Saud’s political quest to unify the territories of the Peninsula. And detailed the ongoing wars being waged, in the southern and northern regions, against all those who stood between Ibn Saud and his collectivist mission.[4] Of note here is the function of Umm Al Qura in amplifying the nature of the Sultan’s mission and the political maneuvers the nascent state and its sovereign had to take to forge ties with otherwise independent tribes, and largely independent territories. This is best elucidated in the inaugural edition of the publication where a clear stance regarding Ibn Saud’s political will, particularly regarding the refusal of the Hashemite dynasty – then rulers of the Hashemite Kingdom of Hijaz – to cede to Ibn Saud’s mission.
In his inaugural public address published in Umm Al Qura on December 12, 1924, Abdulaziz bin Saud articulated two key tenets of his statist vision.[5] First, he outlined how a collectivist mission to unite the political will of the Arabian Peninsula under a unified Islamic edict is in direct contrast with the existing political systems, with particular emphasis on the perils that Arab rulers’ ways have brought on to the Peninsula. Second, the resolute determination Ibn Saud derived for his endeavor came directly from his unshaken will to right the wrongs perpetrated by the strong against the weak.[6] What becomes quite clear, from this proclamation, is the beginning of a centralized and focused mission of the establishment of a nation state unified under the banner of Islam, and Ibn Saud.
A defined approach to dispersing the country’s most dire and necessary affairs took place within the first decade of Ibn Saud’s rule. Following the takeover of Riyadh in 1902, and the submission of Najdi tribes to his statist mission, the Sultan sought to consolidate his rule by seeking the non-violent political takeover of the Hejaz region.[7] Mekkah and Madinah are two, out of three, of the holiest sites for Muslims and, at the time, the political regency over the care and oversight of these religious grounds wielded political legitimacy for Arab Muslims in a way that other topographies did not.[8] Simultaneously, the dispersal of the country’s affairs first began in Mecca, where the official gazette was first published, then the Sultan moved to Jeddah – the coastal gateway to the Islamic capitals of Mecca and Madinah – where he continued on dispersing the state’s affairs in the historic port city until the late 1920s.[9]
The country’s affairs were tended to through the proclamation of a representative general counsel of advisors and experts voted on in 1924, whereby Ibn Saud called on “all educated, informed, and representative individuals from all across the Peninsula” that do not oppose his uniting Islamic statist mission to join his efforts through an electoral system in Makkah and its provinces.[10] By 1925, the political unification of far flung corners around the Peninsula was still an ongoing endeavor, a very clear and specific purpose of creating an institutional structure for governmental affairs was of great significance.
There is no doubt that the eloquence, and the diplomatic and anti-colonialist rhetoric that Ibn Saud utilized will be difficult to capture in these simple attempts at translation. My hope is to best capture what he said about the purpose of education, verbatim, to the best of my ability. In addressing an assembled council of experts, Ibn Saud called on those responsible for education to tend to the creation of a true Islamic education that emphasizes the rich legacy of the Arab identity.[11] In specifying the form of education the newly established councils are to oversee, the Sultan paints a very specific picture of what this endeavor of education should achieve and the sort of existing systems it would vehemently oppose.
He illustrated that the knowledge gleaned from an education that “see our homes wading in a sea of humiliation and indignity” is not an education meant to serve the prosperity of the many.[12] He specified that spreading the same education that had taken ahold around the outskirts of the Peninsula would condemn people to a subservient position, both by compromising Islamic edict and morality, and in terms of cultural alienation, then he would endure “The humiliation of a humble dwelling where the wind still blows” rather than dwell in “the stifling cost of a magnificent palace”.[13] At its core, Ibn Saud called into question extant forms of education that would seek to exchange one’s illiteracy for one’s cultural, religious, and political autonomy.
Geopolitically, particularly during the interwar period, several developments in the consolidation of the Saudi state took place. On one end, Najdi-English ties formed at the heels of formalized Hashemite-English relations meant to deter Ibn Saud from politically taking over the Hejaz. According to a proclamation made by Ibn Saud in September of 1925, the latter formed to prevent their ousting from the Hejaz and to help maintain their position as the legitimate rulers of the Muslim world.[14] While the latter, according to Ibn Saud, was the establishment of ties limited to the people of Najd, and their unification under their chosen ruler, and the British.[15] The proclamation was an attempt at highlighting the British-Saudi ties having no political implications on the Najdi Sultan’s claim to power. In one sense, the insertion of English allyship to the Hashemites legitimized Ibn Saud’s political endeavors as anti-colonialist efforts. On the other hand, it exemplified how Ibn Saud went about gaining recognition of his statist project by developing formal relations with nations based on mutuality.
What marked the end of this early period was the official proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the granting of petroleum extraction, processing, and sale concession to the Standard Oil Company of California in 1933.[16] The agreement with the American company saw with it the establishment of temporary agreement between the United States and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, short of official diplomatic representation within the nascent state.[17] Despite the establishment of commercial mutuality, the United States did not have Consular representation in the Kingdom. In 1938, however, the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in the Eastern Province of the Kingdom changed how the state formed diplomatic ties with foreign governments. The end of the Second World War in 1945 marked the end of the early period of the state’s development with the Kingdom as a signatory to the UN Proclamation and the formalization of American-Saudi relations on February 14, 1945, with the meeting of President Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud aboard the USS Quincy.[18]
Umm Al Qura was the first official weekly gazette of the Saudi state. It is published exclusively in Arabic and has been in circulation since 1924. It lives on as the official platform for the government’s announcements on Saudi laws, regulations, royal decrees and international news relevant to the Kingdom. Contemporary and archival editions of the newspaper can be found on their official webpage. ↑
Abdulaziz Al Saud, “بلاغ سلطاني,” صحيفة أم القرى, December 12, 1924, 1 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Ik4vd1R4U1FMYUtJRWE4TWgyTkc3cVE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQUJQUGVUK3p0cnp5UDRtWWJwOG5Bdz09IiwibWFjIjoiNzg3MzlmZWQ0YzJjZDY0Zjg2NzdhZjRmN2VhNDNjOWExYmY2NWQ3MjdkMjI2NzkyODlkNmZkMGY4MzlhMjdmNyIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
Abdulaziz Al Saud, “موقفنا السياسي,” صحيفة أم القرى, December 19, 1924, 2 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6InJBT01SL2k4WEEyWkRaQ1lLZEFWOXc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoieHNtWjJKd0o5aXRPYy9ockYwS3krQT09IiwibWFjIjoiNWMxNTAwMDdmM2U4MmRlMThiNzIzMTE2MTFiZDJmOTAxZWU1MjZmNTkyODAyN2Y1ZjQ3NGVlNmE0MWVmMTM0YSIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
Rasheed Reza, “حوادث محلية,” صحيفة أم القرى, August 16, 1925, 33 edition. ↑
Al Saud, “موقفنا السياسي.” ↑
Al Saud, “بلاغ سلطاني.” ↑
Najdi refers to the tribes of the region of Najd. The region is located atop a plateau in the central region of the Arabian Peninsula. ↑
“ذوبان حكومة جدة,” صحيفة أم القرى, August 28, 1925, 35 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Ik5JMFJVZ2syMmFRNExlTHBNaFp4QXc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiWU13VG93bTFNZVUrMnBQc2FDNHYwdz09IiwibWFjIjoiYWJlMDU0MjQwYjBjNzQ1MTQwMzdkMDNhZjdiMTZjZmVlYzU1ZjMxYjQ3MTk5NDMwOTczNzY1MmRhYzlhNWI2OSIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath; “تسليم المدينة المنورة,” صحيفة أم القرى, December 18, 1925, 51 edition, sec. 4, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Ill2NTVPYk9Bd00vZGRJRUFsdDFkSHc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiRjdOZm44QStkMlZCbC9qYnEwYS84QT09IiwibWFjIjoiNDkyMTk1Mjg2ZGI1YjMzNDY5NWFhNzhmZGJjYjJiNTEyNTUyNTcwMDRkOWZiY2NhZjliMTM4MGFjNzk1ZjJhNSIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
“سفر جلالة الملك,” صحيفة أم القرى, September 9, 1927, 143 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6IjdvMEVQMTM2STI0MUU0dzA4OWEzU2c9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiamU2Y3ZSamtwK1lLVUlFMjR3djl1QT09IiwibWFjIjoiNjczN2I5NmRiZjMwZjM3YWYyZGY2YmI2OTVkYWQ5OWE4NTkwMDc4OWQ4M2UxYTRmYmIzODlmMzg1ODYxZTExNiIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
Abdulaziz Al Saud, “انتخاب المجلس الأهلي,” صحيفة أم القرى, August 1, 1925, 31 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Ii9tOVJnMjlFT3hDaFdGbUdrZjNxWUE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiQzVjbktpdWdyQnhaNDVyVlZWTjFpZz09IiwibWFjIjoiZmQyOWMyMzcyMzg2ZmJiMzU3NzI1OTQwNDAwMmQyMDNmMTlmZGFjYmQ5NjdkNzFlNDNjZmUyMTZhZDczNWJhMCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
Abdulaziz Al Saud, “ما نريده من التعليم,” صحيفة أم القرى, August 23, 1925, 34 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6InROdlNXYm5jS2FTb0Z6UFZWU3FQRGc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiT0JDZmkwZy9BR1hkTG10SGd1RnpWUT09IiwibWFjIjoiOTFjM2VjNDkxOWM3N2ExMjU2MDE1MDdhMjhiZDQ0NGIwMTNjNWE5YjczYzdhMWZlMDM4ZGEyOTE5YzUzZjEzOCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
Al Saud. ↑
Al Saud. ↑
Abdulaziz Al Saud, “بيان لابد منه ١ بين المعاهدة النجدية الانجليزية والحجازية الإنكليزية,” صحيفة أم القرى, September 18, 1925, 38 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Im1hSmZmMnlFZ2l1NXFmblJNM1h0V0E9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiKzZrcy9BYnI2dkU2bUlRSFk1d01sdz09IiwibWFjIjoiZjRlMTViZWRhMTY3YWE1NmQyMTIwYjcxYzQzMjJlMzZhODJmMDdhMTI4Mjk0ZmY1YzBjOGUzZTY5ZjU5NjcwNiIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath.Abdulaziz Al Saud, “بيان لابد منه ٢ الحجاز والمعاهدتين. حقيقة الموقف الحاضر,” صحيفة أم القرى, September 25, 1925, 39 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6InhUVkdnMEZkSE8vSkRROFg1djM0cHc9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoicVA5UkxhenJ5dmxlcWFqZ1RUd2F6UT09IiwibWFjIjoiYjFlNWYyNjkyM2FiNzY3MjBmYThlMDhkZWU0M2U1ODllMjQyYjU3N2QyNzBlMzg5ODkyYTllZGVlYWViYmZmNSIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
Ibid. ↑
Abdulaziz Al Saud, “مرسوم رقم ١١٣٥ باعطاء امتياز استخراج البترول,” صحيفة أم القرى, July 14, 1933, 448 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Im9zZVI3SUQvR3laRWNIdkcyVnp3SFE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoiSFJ6b2tJMUV6dVplWXJKeVRVMWxsQT09IiwibWFjIjoiMjUzMjM2MTE4NjcwZDM0ZTE4YmE5NmE4YTIwNWU4ZDdjODk4MDM3ZWJjMGNlYWM5YjlmNDM1OTdjMzMxNzAyOCIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
“اتفاقية مؤقتة بين المملكة العربية السعودية والوليات المتحدة,” صحيفة أم القرى, December 1, 1933, 468 edition, https://ncar.gov.sa/api/index.php/resource/eyJpdiI6Im8rbnZ2eGtTODF2a2lnZk85K1pmaEE9PSIsInZhbHVlIjoidnFnelJtb2pOZ1FZQ3lQS25pSXNUQT09IiwibWFjIjoiMTkxMjc3MDYzODczYTk1ZGIzZjljNTRlODYzM2ZkMmI2Y2Y5NjdjNzEzN2FkZjEwZDA4ZWI0NDliNjY5Mzk5MSIsInRhZyI6IiJ9/OmAlQourahVersions/AttachPath. ↑
“Laying the Foundation: Roosevelt Meets with King Abdul Aziz,” Middle East District Public, accessed May 6, 2024, https://www.tam.usace.army.mil/Media/News-Stories/Article/483577/laying-the-foundation-roosevelt-meets-with-king-abdul-aziz/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tam.usace.army.mil%2FMedia%2FNews-Stories%2FArticle%2F483577%2Flaying-the-foundation-roosevelt-meets-with-king-abdul-aziz%2F. ↑