Chapter 1
1I also follow the convention among former pupils and staff to refer to the Homes as a singular subject and to omit apostrophes that would usually apply. For example, ‘Homes scheme’, ‘Homes graduates’.
2See Deborah Cohen, Family Secrets: Living with Shame from the Victorians to the Present Day (London: Penguin Books, 2013), passim.
3For colonial archives, see Antoinette Burton (ed.), Archive Stories: Facts, Fiction and the Writing of History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005); Ann Laura Stoler, Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006); Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995). For tracing families, see for example, Stephen Foster, A Private Empire (London: Pier 9, 2010).
4Adele Perry, Colonial Relations: The Douglas-Connolly Family and the Nineteenth-Century Imperial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
5Ibid., 3.
6Here I am referring to their absence not only from British family trees but also from scholarly work. While Elizabeth Buettner’s Empire Families is laudable for its focus on the relationships around which the staffing of British India was structured, the book is devoid of South Asian or Anglo-Indian perspectives. Buettner, Empire Families Britons and Late Imperial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
7Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850 (London: Hutchinson, 1987), 32.
8Damon Salesa, Racial Crossings: Race, Intermarriage and the Victorian British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 241–2.
9Perry, Colonial Relations, 1.
10Antoinette Burton, ‘Introduction: Archive Fever, Archive Stories’, in Archive Stories: Facts, Fiction and the Writing of History, ed. Antoinette Burton (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 9. Burton’s work framed my original incursion into the Kalimpong story: Jane McCabe, ‘Letters from Kalimpong: A Tea Planter’s Journey towards “Home” with His Anglo-Indian Children’ (PGDip. diss., University of Otago, 2009).
11See Bernard Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); and Christopher Pinney, Camera Indica: The Social Life of Indian Photographs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
12For a summary of the various names applied to the community, see Laura Bear, The Jadu House: Intimate Histories of Anglo-India (London: Transworld Publishers, 2000), 287–91.
13Two key works locate the colonial legacy in a still-disturbed Anglo-Indian present: Laura Bear, Lines of the Nation: Indian Railway Workers, Bureaucracy and the Intimate Historical Self (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007); and Lionel Caplan, Children of Colonialism: Anglo-Indians in a Postcolonial World (Oxford: Berg, 2001). One of the key segregating features of the community was that it had no caste as the term is understood and practised in South Asia; but Bear also describes the community as a ‘railway caste’. Bear, Lines of the Nation, 8–9.
14Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 46.
15Durba Ghosh, Sex and the Family in Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), passim.
16The Government of India Act 1935 defined an ‘Anglo-Indian’ as ‘a person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein’. Bear, The Jadu House, 291.
17Bear, Lines of the Nation, passim.
18Caplan, Children of Colonialism, 132.
19Deana Heath, ‘Comparative Colonialism, Moral Censorship and Governmentality’, in Decentring Empire: Britain, India and the Transcolonial World, ed. Durba Ghosh and Dane Kennedy (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2006), 229. See also Deana Heath, Purifying Empire: Obscenity and the Politics of Moral Regulation in Britain, India and Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
20See Tony Ballantyne, ‘Writing Out Asia’, in Webs of Empire: Locating New Zealand’s Colonial Past (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2012), 53. ‘Raced migration’ is Radhika Mongia’s term. See Mongia, ‘Race, Nationality, Mobility: A History of the Passport’, Public Culture 11, no. 3 (1999): 527–55.
21See www.kalimpongkids.org.nz. At the time of writing I have had contact with the families of 72 of the 130 emigrants, comprising many hundreds of people all over New Zealand.
22Evans articulates her position in ‘Secrets and Lies: The Radical Potential of Family History,’ History Workshop Journal 71 (2011): 49–73, and applied the methodology to her recent book Fractured Families: Life on the Margins of Colonial New South Wales (Sydney: Newsouth Publishing, 2015).
23Evans, Fractured Families, 57–81.
24See Michael Rothberg’s Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonisation (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), for an excellent discussion of contests over the public space for memorializing histories.
Chapter 2
1See Antoinette Burton, Dwelling in the Archive: Women Writing about House, Home and History in Late Colonial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘The Rani of Sirmur: An Essay Reading the Archives’, History and Theory 24, no. 3 (1985): 247–72.
2Alison McQueen, The Secret Children (London: Orion Books, 2012). The author describes her mother’s gradual but incomplete telling at http://www.alisonmcqueen.com/about/the-secret-children/.
3Michael Palin, Himalaya (London: Phoenix, 2009), 225–6.
4See David Arnold and Stuart Blackburn, ‘Introduction: Life Histories in India’, in Telling Lives in India: Biography, Autobiography and Life History, ed. David Arnold and Stuart Blackburn (Permanent Black: New Delhi, 2004), 2.
5Ibid.
6Interview with Ron Gammie, Wellington, November 2012.
7Tina Harris, Amy Holmes-Tagchungdarpa, Jayeeta Sharma and Markus Viehbeck, ‘Global Encounters, Local Places: Connected Histories of Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and the Himalayas – An Introduction’, Transcultural Studies 1 (2016): 43.
8Alex McKay, Their Footprints Remain: Biomedical Beginnings across the Indo-Tibetan Frontier (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007), 67.
9See Samir Kumar Das, Governing India’s Northeast: Essays on Insurgency, Development and the Culture of Peace (Dordrecht: Springer, 2013), 12. In 2007 my travel insurers would not cover Assam and so I did not travel there. The New Zealand government rates travel to the northeast ‘high risk’: https://www.safetravel.govt.nz/india.
10Harris et al., ‘Global Encounters, Local Places’, 45.
11McKay, Their Footprints Remain, 67.
12Egerton Peters to Caroline Peters, 6 April 1926, Peters private collection, London.
13A publication by the Indian Tea Association included the following areas under ‘Tea Districts’: Darjeeling and Terai, Jaipalguri and Duars, Darrang, Nowgong, Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, Cachar and Sylhet. Maps of Tea Districts (Calcutta: Indian Tea Association, 1930).
14Harris et al., ‘Global Encounters, Local Places’, 48.
15Jayeeta Sharma, Empire’s Garden: Assam and the Making of India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011), 5; Jayeeta Sharma, ‘A Space That Has been Laboured On: Mobile Lives and Transcultural Circulation around Darjeeling and the Eastern Himalayas’, Transcultural Studies 1 (2016): 63–4; and Rana Behal and Prabhu Mohapatra, ‘Tea and Money versus Human Life: The Rise and Fall of the Indenture System in the Assam Tea Plantation, 1840–1908’, Journal of Peasant Studies 19, nos. 3/4 (1992): 142–72.
16Das, Governing India’s Northeast, 3.
17Thomas Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 183–4; Sharma, Empire’s Garden, 43.
18For an evocative description of the ‘metaphors of redemption’ these landscapes came to represent, see Piya Chatterjee, A Time for Tea: Women, Labour and Post/colonial Politics on an Indian Plantation (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 52–3.
19See Jayeeta Sharma, ‘British Science, Chinese Skill, and Assam Tea: Making Empire’s Garden’, Indian Economic and Social History Review 43, no. 4 (2006): 451; Peter Robb, ‘The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example on the Northeastern Frontier in the 1880s’, Modern Asian Studies 31, no. 2 (1997): 258; Sanjib Baruah, ‘Clash of Resource Use Regimes in Colonial Assam: A Nineteenth Century Puzzle Revisited’, Journal of Peasant Studies 28, no. 3 (2001): 119.
20See Yasmin Saikia, Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), passim.
21Interview with Yvonne Gale, Wanaka, February 2013.
22Sharma, ‘A Space That Has been Laboured On’, 75.
23See, for example, Frank Hetherington, Diary of a Tea Planter (Sussex: The Book Guild, 1994); A. R. Ramsden, Assam Planter (London: Gifford, 1945); George Barker, A Tea Planter’s Life in Assam (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co, 1884); P. R. H. Longley, Tea Planter Sahib (New Zealand: Tonson Publishing House, 1969); Frank Nicholls, Assam Shikari: A Tea Planter’s Story of Hunting and High Adventure in the Jungles of North East India (New Zealand: Tonson Publishing House, 1970).
24Longley, Tea Planter Sahib, 13.
25Alistair Gordon, George Peters and His Descendants (London: Alistair Gordon, 2008), 174, 217–19.
26‘John Perrell Gammie’, Obituary, unknown publication, Gammie private collection, Hamilton.
27‘The Late Mr J.A. Gammie’, Obituary, unknown publication, Gammie private collection, Hamilton.
28Elizabeth Buettner, Empire Families: Britons and Late Imperial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), passim.
29Nicholls, Assam Shikari, 11.
30For my reading of this kind of engagement with tea ephemera, see Jane McCabe, ‘From Polo to Poultry: A Planter’s Legacy’, in The Lives of Colonial Objects, ed. Annabel Cooper, Lachy Paterson and Angela Wanhalla (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2015), 275–9.
31Roy Moxham, Tea: Addiction, Exploitation and Empire (New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2003), 121.
32Peter Webster, The Past Is Another Country: The Autobiography of Peter Webster, Part Two 1947–1953 (Wellington: Peter Webster, 2010), 40.
33Ibid., 41.
34Interview with Peter Webster, Wellington, November 2011.
35See, for example, Tony Ballantyne, ‘Mr Peal’s Archive: Mobility and Exchange in Histories of Empire’, in Archive Stories: Facts, Fiction and the Writing of History, ed. Antoinette Burton (Durham, NC: Duke University, 2005), 89.
36Egerton Peters to Caroline Peters, 5 April 1919, Peters private collection, London.
37Ibid.
38Rana Behal, ‘Coolie Drivers or Benevolent Paternalists? British Tea Planters in Assam and the Indenture Labour System’, Modern Asian Studies 44, no. 1 (2010): 32–3.
39Moxham cites a superintendent who suggested that a European assistant ‘ignorant of the language’ was ‘worse than useless’. Moxham, Tea: Addiction, Exploitation and Empire, 121.
40Sharma, Empire’s Garden, Chapter 3, ‘Migrants in the Garden’, 79–116; Rana Behal and Prabhu Mohapatra, ‘Tea and Money versus Human Life: The Rise and Fall of the Indenture System in the Assam Tea Plantation, 1840–1908’, Journal of Peasant Studies 19, nos. 3/4 (1992): 158.
41Longley, Tea Planter Sahib, 19.
42Ibid., 50.
43Chatterjee notes similar stories, A Time for Tea, 164.
44Simon Mainwaring, A Century of Children (Kalimpong: Dr Graham’s Homes, 2000), 5; James Minto, Graham of Kalimpong (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1974), 53–4.
45Webster felt that the policy was ‘purely economic’. It was simply too expensive to bring British women to the plantations and to provide appropriate surrounds for them and any offspring. Interview with Peter Webster, Wellington, November 2011.
46Webster, The Past Is Another Country: Part Two, 48.
47Ibid., 49.
48Ibid., 92; interview with Peter Webster, Wellington, November 2011.
49Chatterjee, A Time for Tea, 164–5.
50Gaiutra Bahadur, Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 150–1.
51As I will explain in the next section, many of the emigrants were well over the expected age at admission to the Homes and would certainly have been able to remember the years preceding it; and although it was unusual, some of the children visited the plantation for holidays and again prior to emigrating.
52Ruth’s married name is den Boogert but she preferred to have her maiden name used in the text for clarity.
53Interview with Ruth Nicholls, Auckland, November 2012.
54Ibid.
55Ibid.
56Interview with Mary Milne, Wellington, November 2012.
57John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
58Ann Selkirk Lobo, ‘Matrilineal Anglo-Indians’, in More Voices on the Verandah, ed. Lionel Lumb (New Jersey: CTR, 2012), 203–4.
59Ibid., 204.
60Ibid., 209.
61Buettner, Empire Families, 25–71.
62Application Form, 19 December 1921, Spalding file, DGHA; Application Form, c. March 1917 [undated], Mortimore file, Dr Graham’s Homes Archive (DGHA).
63Egerton Peters to John Graham, 8 December 1905, Peters file, DGHA.
64Egerton Peters to John Graham, 19 April 1906, Peters file, DGHA.
65Egerton Peters to John Graham, 22 April 1906, Peters file, DGHA.
66John Graham to Francis Hawkins, 6 January 1910, Hawkins file, DGHA.
67Ibid.
68Francis Hawkins to John Graham, 21 October 1910, Hawkins file, DGHA.
69Francis Hawkins to John Graham, 21 March 1911, Hawkins file, DGHA.
70Francis Hawkins to John Graham, 30 March 1911, Hawkins file, DGHA.
71Paul Moller to John Graham, 10 December 1912, Moller file, DGHA.
72Ibid.
73C. E. Seal to John Graham, 6 January 1913, Moller file, DGHA.
74Ibid.
75A. V. Jones to John Graham, 21 September 1916, Mortimore file, DGHA.
76Ibid.
77A. V. Jones to John Graham, 20 February 1917, Mortimore file, DGHA.
78Bahadur, Coolie Woman, 92.
79James Dewar to John Graham, 20 December 1921, Spalding file, DGHA.
80Application Form, 19 December 1921, Spalding file, DGHA.
81James Dewar to James Purdie, 27 October 1926, Spalding file, DGHA.
82Video interview with Gavin and Isabella Gammie, 2000, Gammie private collection, Wellington.
83U. C. Duncan to John Graham, 28 April 1919, Gammie file, DGHA.
84U. C. Duncan to John Graham, 19 June 1919, Gammie file, DGHA.
85J. P. Gammie to John Graham, 30 October 1919, Gammie file, DGHA.
86Ibid.
Chapter 3
1Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Intimidations of Empire: Predicaments of the Tactile and Unseen’, in Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History, ed. Ann Laura Stoler (London: Duke University Press, 2006), 2–3.
2See Shurlee Swain and Margot Hillel, Child, Nation, Race and Empire: Child Rescue Discourse, England, Canada and Australia, 1850–1915 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010).
3See, for example, Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
4James Minto, Graham of Kalimpong (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1974); Simon Mainwaring, A Century of Children (Kalimpong: Dr Graham’s Homes, 2000).
5Satoshi Mizutani, The Meaning of White: Race, Class and the ‘Domiciled Community’ in British India, 1858–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 138.
6Rana Behal, ‘Coolie Drivers or Benevolent Paternalists? British Tea Planters in Assam and the Indenture Labour System’, Modern Asian Studies 44, no. 1 (2010): 35.
7Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), Chapter 6, ‘White Australia Points the Way’, 137–65.
8In 1904 alone, Barnardo’s sent 1,266 children to Canada. See Mary Collie-Holmes, Where the Heart Is: A History of Barnardo’s in New Zealand 1866–1991 (Wellington: Barnardo’s New Zealand, 1991), 20.
9Minto, Graham of Kalimpong, 2.
10Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 4.
11On the victory of the ideology of difference over similarity, see Thomas Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). As discussed in Chapter 1, Durba Ghosh argues that anxieties about racial mixing were present long before 1857. Ghosh, Sex and the Family in Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
12See Elizabeth Buettner, ‘Danger and Pleasure at the Bungalow’, in Empire Families: Britons and Late Imperial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), chapter 1, 25–62; Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 122.
13John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, National Library of Scotland (NLS), Edinburgh.
14John Graham, On the Threshold of Three Closed Lands: The Guild Outpost in the Eastern Himalayas (Edinburgh: R&R Clark, 1897).
15Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 7.
16Minto, Graham of Kalimpong, 60–1. Quarrier Homes housed 1300 children at this time. Swain and Hillel, Child, Nation, Race and Empire, 64, 131.
17Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 6; Mizutani, The Meaning of White, 143–4.
18‘Board of Management’, SACHM 1, no. 1 (1901): 1.
19Peter Webster understood that ‘it was cheaper for [the agencies] to give money to the Homes than have [to support] the [British] wives’, and that planters were routinely instructed by the agencies to send their children the Homes when they were ‘discovered’. Interview with Peter Webster, Wellington, November 2011. Minto also references the tea companies’ contributions in Graham of Kalimpong, 62.
20As Mary Collie-Holmes suggests, Barnardo’s use of emotive storytelling highlighted ‘the most pitiful cases’, when many youngsters paid for their accommodation and were merely assisted to find employment. Collie-Holmes, Where the Heart Is, 14.
21John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
22Lionel Caplan summarizes attempts by British organizations such as the Madras Emigration Society to send Anglo-Indian men to Australia in the mid- to late-nineteenth century. Caplan, Children of Colonialism: Anglo-Indians in a Postcolonial World (Oxford: Berg, 2001), 131–2.
23Mizutani, The Meaning of White, 138.
24John Graham, ‘St Andrew’s Colonial Homes’, Printed brochure, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
25Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
26‘The Open Door’, SACHM 22, nos. 1/2 (1922): 3.
27Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 22.
28Ibid., 38. According to the numbers collated for this book, seventy-seven graduates had been sent to New Zealand by 1925.
29On the precarious conditions of rural labour in India, see Sugata Bose, Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal Since 1770 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 48–51; and S. J. Patel, ‘Agricultural Labourers in Modern India and Pakistan’, in The World of the Rural Labourer in Colonial India, ed. Gyan Prakash (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992), 47–74. In the same collection Dharma Kumar explores the links between caste and occupation. Kumar, ‘Caste and Landlessness in South India’, in The World of the Rural Laborer in Colonial India, ed. Gyan Prakash (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992), 75–106. One of Graham’s supporters also researched agricultural systems in India; see Harold H. Mann, The Social Framework of Agriculture: India, Middle East, England (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1967).
30‘New Zealand and our Emigrants’, SACHM 21, nos. 1/2 (1921): 6.
31Murray, ‘The Philosophy of Colonisation’, SACHM 1, no. 2 (1901): 28.
32Ibid.
33Tony Ballantyne’s influential work on the circulation of knowledge around the British Empire has structured my understanding of this dialogue. See Ballantyne, Webs of Empire: Locating New Zealand’s Colonial Past (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2012).
34‘Fields for Emigration’, SACHM 1, no. 2 (1901): 29.
35Ibid.
36Ibid.
37‘Queensland as a Field for Emigration’, SACHM 3, no. 1 (1903): 29.
38Ibid.
39Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 15–17.
40Swain and Hillel, Child, Nation, Race and Empire, 3.
41Video recording, interview with Gavin and Isabella Gammie, 2000, Gammie private collection, Wellington.
42Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 85–9.
43We Homes Chaps, DVD, directed by Kesang Tseten (Kathmandu, Nepal: Filmmakers Library, 2001). Kesang Tseten was a resident of the Homes in the 1970s. He filmed the documentary at the Homes centenary in 2000, where he conducted a series of group and individual interviews with graduates of the 1970s.
44Video recording, interview with Gavin and Isabella Gammie, 2000, Gammie private collection, Wellington.
45Personal communication with Joan Cudby-Leith and Martin Leith, Levin, 15 November 2011.
46Interview with Ruth Nicholls, Auckland, November 2012.
47Interviewee in We Homes Chaps, DVD.
48Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
49Mary Braid, ‘My Daily Life in the Homes’, SACHM 20, nos. 1/2 (1920): 8.
50Personal communication with Jane Webster, Wellington, November 2011.
51Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 13, 20.
52Ibid., 153.
53Ibid., 20–1.
54Interview with Ruth Nicholls, Auckland, November 2012.
55Video recording, interview with Gavin and Isabella Gammie, 2000, Gammie private collection, Wellington.
56Interview with Ruth Nicholls, Auckland, November 2012.
57As Warwick Anderson has argued, ‘The colonial reformatory thus produced – not eliminated – the in between.’ Anderson, ‘States of Hygiene: Race “Improvement” and Biomedical Citizenship in Australia and the Colonial Philippines’, in Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History, ed. Ann Laura Stoler (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 96. For an explanation of the chee-chee accent, see Caplan, Children of Colonialism, 64–5.
58See Mainwaring, A Century of Children, Appendix Five: ‘Homes Slang’, 191–8.
59Interview with Ruth Nicholls, Auckland, November 2012.
60Ibid.
61Mizutani suggests that the Homes directors were ‘almost obsessively concerned’ about negative influences of visits home, to cities or plantations, and asked parents to sacrifice their desire for contact with their children by allowing them to stay at Kalimpong for the holidays. Mizutani, The Meaning of White, 150–1.
62Egerton Peters to Miss McRie, 23 February 1912, Peters file, Dr Graham’s Homes Archive (DGHA), Kalimpong.
63Ibid.
64Francis Hawkins to John Graham, 19 September 1918, Hawkins file, DGHA.
65John Gammie to John Graham, 28 July 1920; John Gammie to John Graham, 17 November 1920, Gammie file, DGHA.
66Egerton Peters to John Graham, 28 April 1912, Peters file, DGHA.
67Ibid.
68Here Peters is likely referring to ideas about Anglo-Indian women’s sexuality and fears of them becoming involved in prostitution. Egerton Peters to John Graham, 20 October 1914, Peters file, DGHA.
69Egerton Peters to John Graham, 27 July 1920, Peters file, DGHA.
70Egerton Peters to John Graham, 21 August 1920, Peters file, DGHA.
71Dora Moller to John Graham, 17 July 1920, Moller file, DGHA.
72Paul Moller to John Graham, 14 December 1920, Moller file, DGHA.
73Paul Moller to John Graham, 8 January 1921, Moller file, DGHA.
74John Perrell Gammie to James Purdie, 12 March 1924, Gammie file, DGHA.
75John Perrell Gammie to James Purdie, 29 November 1924, Gammie file, DGHA.
76John Perrell Gammie to James Purdie, 10 December 1924, Gammie file, DGHA.
77Francis Hawkins to John Graham, 9 May 1923, Hawkins file, DGHA.
78Francis Hawkins to James Purdie, 7 May 1924, Hawkins file, DGHA.
79Francis Hawkins to James Purdie, [undated], Hawkins file, DGHA.
80James Dewar to John Graham, 20 October 1925, Spalding file, DGHA.
81Charles Spalding to James Purdie, 24 May 1926, Spalding file, DGHA.
82Jean and Rend Mortimore Declarations, 2 November 1926, Mortimore file, DGHA.
83Ka Ngelibou to St Andrew’s Colonial Homes, 8 November 1926, Mortimore file, DGHA. Renrose is a conflation of her son’s first two names: Rend Rose.
84Lorna Peters to John Graham, 1 January 1921, Peters file, DGHA.
1‘Australia and New Zealand: Notes and Impressions’, SACHM 9, no. 4 (1909): 59.
2W. D. Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, 1854–1938 (Canberra: Australian National University, 1991), 151–2; Angela McCarthy, Scottishness and Irishness in New Zealand since 1840 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 48–51.
3Tony Ballantyne, ‘The Theory and Practice of Empire-Building: Edward Gibbon Wakefield and “Systematic Colonisation” ’, in The Routledge History of Western Empires, ed. Robert Aldrich and Kirsten McKenzie (London: Routledge, 2013), 89.
4Radhika Mongia, ‘Race, Nationality, Mobility: A History of the Passport’, Public Culture 11, no. 3 (1999): 328.
5These Acts were generally aimed at the Chinese but affected Indian and other non-white migrants too. See Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 2.
6C. Holdsworth to D. M. Hamilton, 15 August 1905, Union Steam Ship Company Records, AG-292-005-004/135, Hocken Collections, Dunedin (HC).
7For a review of the historiography addressing New Zealand’s reputed egalitarianism, see Melanie Nolan, ‘Constantly on the Move but Going Nowhere? Work, Community and Social Mobility’, in The New Oxford History of New Zealand, ed. Giselle Byrnes (South Melbourne: Oxford University Press), 357–88. See also Erik Olssen, Clyde Griffen and Frank Jones, An Accidental Utopia? Social Mobility and the Foundations of an Egalitarian Society, 1880–1940 (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2011).
8C. Holdsworth to D. M. Hamilton, 15 August 1905, Union Steam Ship Company Records, AG-292-005-004/135, HC. As scholars of the Indian community in New Zealand have shown, this legislation was never an effective means of preventing Indian immigration as it was common practice to ‘cram’ for the language test and cross the border unimpeded. See Jacqueline Leckie, ‘Indians in the South Pacific: Recentred Diasporas’, in Recentring Asia, ed. Jacob Edmond, Henry Johnson and Jacqueline Leckie (Boston: Global Oriental, 2011), 64; and W. H. McLeod, Punjabis in New Zealand (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University, 1986), 69.
9C. Holdsworth to D. M. Hamilton, 15 August 1905, Union Steam Ship Company Records, AG-292-005-004/135, HC.
10Ibid. Hugh Morrison notes the predominance of the Otago and Southland regions in both the number of committees and missionaries sent to India. See Hugh Morrison, ‘ “But We Are Concerned with a Greater Imperium”: The New Zealand Protestant Missionary Movement and the British Empire, 1870–1930’, Social Sciences and Missions 21 (2008): 97–127.
11‘Beginning Life’s Battle’, SACHM 8, no. 1 (1908): 5.
12Ibid.
13Racial theories of the time meant class and climate were understood to affect racial status and thus ‘poor whites’ and ‘domiciled’ Britons were often problematized and categorized as Anglo-Indian. See Laura Bear, ‘Miscegenations of Modernity: Constructing European Respectability and Race in the Indian Railway Colony, 1857–1931’, Women’s History Review 3, no. 4 (1994): 536; David Arnold, ‘European Orphans and Vagrants in India in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 7, no. 2 (1979): 114.
14By 1910 there were twelve committees: Calcutta, the Central Provinces, Asansol, Burdwan, Nagpur, Bhagalpur, Jamalpur, Benares, Jhansi, Jubbulpore, Bihar and Orissa. Simon Mainwaring, A Century of Children (Kalimpong: Dr Graham’s Homes, 2000), 18–20.
15‘Beginning Life’s Battle’, SACHM 8, no. 1 (1908): 5.
16John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh (NLS).
17Register of New Zealand Presbyterian Ministers, Deaconesses and Missionaries 1840–2009, Presbyterian Archives Research Centre (PARC), accessed 20 March 2012, www.archives.presbyterian.org.nz/Page191.htm. Ponder’s brother was a tea planter in the district prior to studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh. See Alex McKay, Their Footprints Remain: Biomedical Beginnings across the Indo-Tibetan Frontier (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2007), 72.
18See Eric Skinner, Waitahuna Memories (Wellington: A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1947) and for Middlemarch, see Helen M. Thompson, East of the Rock and Pillar (1949; reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1977).
19J. S. Ponder‚ ‘ “Kim” and His Brothers’, Otago Witness, 12 August 1908.
20Ibid.
21‘Departure of a Lady Missionary for India’, The Outlook, 21 March 1908, PARC. The reference to the Church of Scotland’s mission rather than the Homes indicates the scheme’s unofficial church status. No other mention of the scheme has been located in The Outlook, although Graham’s death was reported in 1942.
22‘Departure of a Lady Missionary for India’, The Outlook, 21 March 1908, PARC.
23MacKean missioned for two decades in Sikkim, interspersed with time in Kalimpong. See Alex McKay, ‘The Indigenisation of Western Medicine in Sikkim’, Bulletin of Tibetology 40, no. 2 (2004): 25–47; and Cindy Perry, Nepali around the World (Kathmandu: Ekta Books, 1997), 92–3 (reference supplied by John Bray).
24‘Emigration’, SACHM 9, no. 1 (1909): 7.
25Ibid. This focus on education was both a help and a hindrance for the young men whose acceptance was affected by the developing stereotype of the ideal ‘Kiwi bloke’, which included a distrust of ‘book learning’. Jock Phillips, A Man’s Country? The Image of the Pakeha Male (Auckland: Penguin, 1996), 1–43.
26‘Emigration’, SACHM 9, no. 1 (1909): 7.
27Ibid.
28Linda Gordon’s The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999) is one example of a scheme built around ‘orphans’ being sent to the American West.
29‘Australia and New Zealand’, SACHM 9, nos. 3/4 (1909): 59–61.
30Dr Graham’s Diary (DGD) 1909, transcribed by James Purdie, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
31‘The Land of the Sahib: “Kim” and His Sisters’, Otago Witness, 1 September 1909.
32DGD 1909, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS. The school was run by daughters of the Williams family.
33John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS; ‘Dr Graham on Outlook for Anglo-Indians’, The Statesman, 4 February 1939. Damon Salesa noted the circulation of these same theories. See Salesa, ‘Half-Castes between the Wars: Colonial Categories in New Zealand and Samoa’, New Zealand Journal of History 34, no. 1 (2000): 112–13.
34Dr Graham’s Diary (DGD) 1909, transcribed by James Purdie, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
35D. Kennedy to Customs Department, February 1909, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, Archives New Zealand, Wellington office (ANZ-W). The department’s reply reiterated the theoretical ease of negotiating immigration controls, advising that ‘there is nothing to prevent natives of India who are not suffering from any physical defect from entering the Dominion so long as they can write out the necessary form of application, in any European language’. Immigration Department secretary to D. Kennedy, 17 February 1909, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
36John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
37Dr Graham’s Diary (DGD) 1909, transcribed by James Purdie, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
38Waddell was an advocate of prison reform, kindergarten and women’s suffrage, and a key critic of the ‘sweating’ system. See Simon Rae, From Relief to Social Service (Dunedin: PSSA Otago Inc, 1991), 26.
39‘The Land of the Sahib: “Kim” and His Sisters’, Otago Witness, 1 September 1909.
40‘Australia and New Zealand: Notes and Impressions’, SACHM 9, nos. 3/4 (1909): 60. I have written elsewhere on this clash of masculinities: Jane McCabe, ‘Remaking Anglo-Indian Men: Agricultural Labour as Remedy in the British Empire, 1908–1938,’ Gender and History 26, no. 3 (2014): 438–58.
41DGD 1909, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
42‘Farewell to our New Zealanders’, SACHM 12, nos. 3/4 (1912): 38.
43‘News from our Emigrants’, SACHM 13, no. 1 (1913): 12.
44Ibid., 12–13.
45‘Orphan Immigrants: On the Way to New Zealand’, Ashburton Guardian, 17 December 1912.
46Ibid.
47‘Local and General’, Ashburton Guardian, 20 December 1912.
48‘Local and General’, Wanganui Chronicle, 24 December 1912.
49‘News from our Emigrants’, SACHM 13, no. 1 (1913): 13.
50James Beattie, Empire and Environmental Anxiety: Health, Science, Art and Conservation, 1800–1920 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 59.
51Satoshi Mizutani, The Meaning of White: Race, Class and the ‘Domiciled Community’ in British India, 1858–1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 175. See also Alison Blunt, Domicile and Diaspora: Anglo-Indian Women and the Spatial Politics of Home (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005).
52SACHM 12, no. 3 (1912): 39.
53‘The Domestic Science Block’, SACHM 16, no. 1 (1916): 8–9.
54‘Our Girls as Colonists – Their Prospects’, SACHM 9, nos. 3/4 (1909): 61.
55Barry Higman, Domestic Service in Australia (Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 2002), 88.
56Studies of schemes that trained indigenous women as domestic servants for white households have identified this as a key site of racial and cultural assimilation. See, for example, Victoria Haskins, ‘Domestic Service and Frontier Feminism: The Call for a Woman Visitor to “Half-Caste” Girls and Women in Domestic Service, Adelaide, 1925–1928’, Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 28, nos. 1/2 (2007): 125–6. I address these issues in more detail in: Jane McCabe, ‘Settling in, From Within: Anglo-Indian Lady-Helps in 1920s New Zealand’, in Colonisation and Domestic Service: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, ed. Victoria Haskins and Claire Lowrie (New York: Routledge, 2014), 63–78.
57‘After the Bunny in New Zealand’, SACHM 11, no. 1 (1911): 7.
58For the precariousness of the life of a rabbiter, see Charles J. Ayton, Diary 1899–1904: Goldminer, Rabbiter and Peat-Digger of Central Otago, ed. John Child (Naseby, New Zealand: Maniototo Early Settlers’ Association, 1982).
59‘A Rolling Stone in New Zealand’, SACHM, 11, no. 2 (1911): 25.
60Ibid.
61Miles Fairburn argues that New Zealand suffered from a marked lack of social structure due to its rapid rural development in The Ideal Society and Its Enemies: The Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society 1850–1900 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1989); and David Roediger found evidence of the rejection of the terminology of servant and master in the United States from the early 1800s. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York: Verso, 1999), 47.
62David Roediger, Working towards Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 156.
63Tony Ballantyne, ‘Writing Out Asia’, in Webs of Empire: Locating New Zealand’s Colonial Past (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2012), 58.
64‘After the Bunny in New Zealand’, SACHM 11, no. 1 (1911): 7.
65‘In Praise of Farming’, SACHM 11, no. 1 (1911): 8.
66Ibid.
67‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 14, no. 2 (1914): 27. ‘Mrs C’ is likely to have been Mrs Church, wife of a Dr Church who had a practice in High St, and who Graham met on his visit in 1909.
68Ibid., 28.
69‘Orphan Immigrants: On the Way to New Zealand’, Ashburton Guardian, 17 December 1912. In New Zealand, Jean Holland found evidence of ‘semi-genteel’ women brought in as ‘lady-helps’. See Holland, ‘Domestic Service in Colonial New Zealand.’ MA diss., University of Auckland, 1976, 63–4; and Higman, Domestic Service in Australia, 148.
70‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 14, no. 2 (1914): 29.
71‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 15, nos. 3/4 (1915): 43.
72‘Our Colonials’, SACHM 14, no. 4 (1914): 70.
73Ibid.
74See Angela Wanhalla, In/visible Sight: The Mixed-Descent Families of Southern New Zealand (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2009).
75‘Our Colonials’, SACHM 14, no. 2 (1914): 28.
76‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 14, no. 2 (1914): 29.
77John Graham, ‘The Call of India’, Wellington broadcast, 4 July 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
78‘Anglo-Indian Recruiting’, SACHM 16, no. 2 (1916): 19.
79‘An Anglo-Indian Company’, SACHM 16, nos. 3/4 (1916): 32. See Christopher Pugsley, Te Hokowhitu A Tu: The Māori Pioneer Battalion in the First World War (Auckland: Reed Publishing, 2006).
80The men’s responses in the field for ‘religion’ on the front page of the History Sheet was in every case annotated with ‘Indian’, and ‘Presbyterian’ was often written alongside their declaration of birthplace in India. Lachy Paterson discusses the importance of religion in shaping the response of New Zealanders towards Indian troops in ‘ “The Similarity of Hue Constituted No Special Bond of Intimacy between Them”: Close Encounters of the Indigenous Kind’, Journal of New Zealand Studies 14 (2013): 27.
81I explore the men’s overseas service in more detail in Jane McCabe, ‘An Ideal Life: Anglo-Indians in the NZEF’, in Endurance and the First World War: Experiences and Legacies in New Zealand and Australia, ed. Katie Pickles, David Monger and Sarah Murray (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 196–214.
82‘Egypt and the Dardanelles’, SACHM 16, no. 1 (1916): 11.
83Ibid.
84‘The Homes and the War’, SACHM 16, no. 2 (1916): 19.
85‘The Homes and the War’, SACHM 17, nos. 3/4 (1917): 16.
86‘The Homes and the War’, SACHM 16, no. 2 (1916): 19.
87‘Some Letters from Our Soldier Boys’, SACHM 16, nos. 3/4 (1916): 32.
88‘The Homes and the War’, SACHM 18, nos. 1/2 (1918): 2.
89Ibid.
90‘A New Zealander on Leave’, SACHM 16, no. 2 (1916): 19.
91‘The Homes and the War’, SACHM 18, nos. 1/2 (1918): 2.
92‘Birthday Greetings’, SACHM 18, nos. 3/4 (1918): 19. ANZAC is an acronym for Australia and New Zealand Army Corps. Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds critically evaluate the ‘nationalist myth’ connecting ANZAC and identity in What’s Wrong with Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2010).
93‘The Homes and the War’, SACHM 18, nos. 1/2 (1918): 2.
94Statement of the Services of Hamilton Melville, 15 November 1918, NZDFPR: AABK 18805 W5549 0080084, ANZ-W. The DCM was awarded to only 525 New Zealanders from 1899 to 1970.
95‘New Zealand and Our Emigrants: Will There Be Exclusion?’, SACHM 21, nos. 1/2 (1921): 5.
96Martin Crotty discusses this gender imbalance in ‘Australian Troops Land at Gallipoli: Trial, Trauma and the “Birth of the Nation”, ’ in Turning Points in Australian History, ed. Martin Crotty and David Andrew Roberts (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2009), 108.
97‘Girls for New Zealand’, SACHM 15, no. 2 (1915): 20.
98‘Our New Zealand Girls’, SACHM 18, nos. 1/2 (1918): 7–8.
99‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 15, no. 1 (1915): 6.
100Hughes was recorded on the Grevillers (New Zealand) Memorial at Pas-des-Calais and Richard May on the Caterpillar Valley (New Zealand) Memorial at Somme. Commonwealth War Graves Commission database, accessed 27 June 2013, http://www.cwgc.org/.
101Description on Enlistment, Richard May, 20 May 1915, NZDFPR: AABK 18805 W5549 0079619, ANZ-W.
102Written communication from Michelle Sim, 29 January 2013.
103Ibid.
104Richard May to Mary Harrison, 24 September 1915, Harrison private collection, Dipton, Southland.
105Ibid.
106‘For the Empire’s Cause’, newspaper clipping (unknown publication), and ‘Signaller R.S. May’, Otago Witness, 8 October 1916, Harrison family archive, Dipton, Southland.
107‘Signaller R.S. May’, Otago Witness, 8 October 1916.
Chapter 5
1Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, ‘Immigration Restriction in the 1920s: “Segregation on a Large Scale” ’, in Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), Chapter 13, 310–34.
2See, for example, Jacqueline Leckie, ‘Indians in the South Pacific: Recentred Diasporas’, in Recentring Asia, ed. Jacob Edmond, Henry Johnson and Jacqueline Leckie (Boston: Global Oriental, 2011), 64; Manying Ip, Home Away from Home: Life Stories of Chinese Women in New Zealand (Auckland: New Women’s Press, 1990), 15.
3See my article addressing the narrative of exclusion: Jane McCabe, ‘Working the Permit System: Anglo-Indian Immigration to New Zealand in the 1920s’, New Zealand Journal of History 48, no. 2 (2014): 27–49.
4Rieko Karatani has noted similar processes in Britain. Karatani, Defining British Citizenship: Empire, Commonwealth and Modern Britain (London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2003), 73.
5Alison Bashford, ‘Immigration Restrictions: Rethinking Period and Place from Settler Colonies to Postcolonial Nations’, Journal of Global History 9 (2014): 32.
6‘New Zealand and Our Emigrants: Will There Be Exclusion?’, SACHM 21, nos. 1/2 (1921): 6.
7Ibid. This was a reference to the special provisions for Indian migrants, as imperial subjects, requested by the British government. See Jacqueline Leckie, ‘The Southernmost Indian Diaspora: From Gujarat to Aotearoa’, Journal of South Asian Studies 21 (1998): 172.
8Ibid.
9‘A Short Review of Year’s Work’, SACHM 22, nos. 1/2 (1922): 3.
10Controller of Customs to Minister of Customs, 13 September 1937, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, Archives New Zealand, Wellington Office (ANZ-W).
11Permanent entry permits to enter New Zealand, Department of Labour, R15971851, ANZ-W.
12‘New Zealand Emigration’, SACHM 24, nos. 1/2 (1924): 11.
13P. E. Suttie is mentioned several times in R. S. Finlow, Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India: ‘Heart Damage’ in Baled Jute (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co, 1918).
14‘New Zealand Emigration’, SACHM 24, nos. 1/2 (1924): 11.
15Permanent Entry Record Books, 1921–1926, Department of Labour, R19007319, ANZ-W.
16‘New Zealand’, SACHM 24, nos. 3/4 (1924): 36.
17Ibid.
18‘The New Zealand Emigrants’, SACHM 26, nos. 1/2 (1926): 14.
19‘Our Emigrants’ First Impressions of N.Z.’, SACHM 27, nos. 1/2 (1927): 11.
20Ibid.
21G. Kelly to Customs Department, 29 January 1928, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
22Note to letter, G. Kelly to Customs Department, 29 January 1928, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
23‘Eurasian Labour’, Wanganui Chronicle, 23 January 1928, filed in General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
24Ibid. The story ran in the Auckland Star ten days earlier: ‘Eurasian Domestics: Homes in New Zealand’, Auckland Star, 12 January 1928.
25Memorandum, 27 January 1928, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
26Permanent Entry Record Books, 1921–1926, Department of Labour, R19007319, ANZ-W, 160.
27W. D. Borrie traces the steady downturn in assisted migration from 1927 onwards in Immigration to New Zealand, 1854–1938 (Canberra: Australian National University, 1991), 166–7.
28G. R. Hawke, The Making of New Zealand: An Economic History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 125–6.
29‘For the Old Girls and Boys’, SACHM 21, no. 4 (1921): 28.
30‘Old Pupils Overseas’, SACHM 22, nos. 3/4 (1922): 33.
31Ibid.
32‘Dunedin Gossip’, SACHM 24, nos. 1/2 (1924): 14.
33‘Making Homes of Their Own’, SACHM 29, nos. 3/4 (1929): 55.
34‘Marriage Bells’, SACHM 29, nos. 3/4 (1929): 55.
35Ibid.
36‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 27, nos. 1/2 (1927): 21.
37‘Our Emigrants First Impressions of New Zealand’, SACHM 27, nos. 1/2 (1927): 11.
38‘New Zealand’, SACHM 28, nos. 3/4 (1928): 45. Margaret was referring to the tradition at Kalimpong of polishing wooden floors with bare feet in a rag.
39‘Making a City Home’, SACHM 20, nos. 3/4 (1920): 29.
40‘The Wellingtonians, N.Z.’, SACHM 21, nos. 3/4 (1921): 28.
41‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 26, nos. 3/4 (1926): 34.
42Ibid., 35. Fraser is the name of one of the boys’ cottages at the Homes.
43‘Good Milkers Wanted’, SACHM 25, nos. 3/4 (1925): 47.
44‘For the Old Boys and Girls’, SACHM 26, nos. 3/4 (1926): 35.
45‘New Zealand’, SACHM 27, nos. 3/4 (1927): 43.
46Borrie, Immigration to New Zealand, 166–7.
47‘Drought and Unemployment’, SACHM 28, nos. 1/2 (1928): 17.
48Ibid.
49‘Unemployment’, SACHM 28, nos. 3/4 (1928): 44.
50‘A Forester’, SACHM 28, nos. 3/4 (1928): 44.
51‘Forest Stations’, SACHM 29, nos. 3/4 (1929): 54.
52Māori had played a crucial role in itinerant rural work since the late nineteenth century. Richard Beresford Nightingale, ‘Māori at Work: The Shaping of a Māori Workforce within the New Zealand State 1935–1975’ (PhD diss, Massey University, 2007), 105–8.
53Jacqueline Leckie, Indian Settlers: The Story of a New Zealand South Asian Community (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2007), 48–52; W. H. McLeod, Punjabis in New Zealand (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University, 1986), 108–9, 121.
54Nightingale notes that the number of Maori employed in forestry fell significantly between 1926 and 1936. Nightingale, ‘Māori at work’, 149.
55‘Another Forester’, SACHM 1929, nos. 3/4 (1929): 54.
56The November 1926 group, for example, included Rend and Jane Mortimore, Thomas Spalding, Alison Gammie and Alice Peters.
57Charles Moller to James Purdie, 2 August 1922, Moller file, Dr Graham’s Homes Archive (DGHA), Kalimpong.
58Charles Moller to John Graham, 21 January 1922, Moller file, DGHA.
59Charles Moller to John Graham, 14 July 1922; Charles Moller to James Purdie, 2 August 1922, Moller file, DGHA.
60‘Kalimpong in Wellington’, SACHM 28, nos. 1/2 (1928): 17.
61Dora Moller to James Purdie, 8 March 1925, Moller file, DGHA.
62Ibid.
63Dora Moller to James Purdie, 27 June 1927, Moller file, DGHA.
64Charles Moller to John Graham, 14 October 1921, Moller file, DGHA.
65Ibid.
66Dora Moller to James Purdie, 7 July 1929, Moller file, DGHA.
67Paul Moller to John Graham, 18 January 1926, Moller file, DGHA.
68Charles Moller to John Graham, 8 July 1928, Moller file, DGHA.
69Ibid.
70Ibid.
71John Graham to Charles Moller, 24 August 1928, Moller file, DGHA.
72Ibid.
73Egerton Peters to John Graham, 18 January 1921, Peters file, DGHA.
74Egerton Peters to John Graham, [undated] c. October 1921, Peters file, DGHA.
75Winkie (Alice) Peters, ‘Daylight Saving Bill and Cow’s Tails’, SACHM 28, nos. 3/4 (1928): 44; George Peters, ‘New Zealand Shepherd’, SACHM 30, nos. 3/4 (1930): 45.
76Egerton Peters to James Purdie, 22 November 1927, Peters file, DGHA.
77Betty Gammie to John Graham, c. August 1925 [undated], Gammie file, DGHA.
78Fergus Gammie to James Purdie, c. May 1926 [undated], Gammie file, DGHA.
79Charles Spalding to John Graham, c. March 1926, Spalding file, DGHA.
80Thomas Spalding to John Graham, c. 1927 [undated], Spalding file, DGHA.
81Personal communication with Pam Gardiner, Auckland, November 2011.
82Rend Mortimore to James Purdie, 23 January 1927, Mortimore file, DGHA.
83Jean Mortimore to James Purdie, 3 March 1927, Mortimore file, DGHA.
84Ibid.
85Ka Ngelibou to St Andrew’s Colonial Homes, 14 March 1927, Mortimore file, DGHA.
86Ka Ngelibou to St Andrew’s Colonial Homes, 10 February 1928, Mortimore file, DGHA.
Chapter 6
1Rudolf von Albertini, ‘The Impact of Two World Wars on the Decline of Colonialism’, Journal of Contemporary History 4, no. 1 (1969): 18–21; Richard Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, Masculinity and the Development of National Consciousness (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010), 4; Laura Tabili, ‘We Ask for British Justice’: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Imperial Britain (New York: Cornell University Press, 1994), 16–17.
2Laura Bear, Lines of the Nation: Indian Railway Workers, Bureaucracy and the Intimate Historical Self (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 105–7.
3Damon Salesa, ‘Half-Castes between the Wars: Colonial Categories in New Zealand and Samoa’, New Zealand Journal of History 34, no. 1 (2000): 105–7.
4John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS. Damon Salesa cites this same quote from Olivier, in ‘Half-Castes between the Wars’, 112–13.
5Memorandum, 1931, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, National Archives New Zealand, Wellington Office (ANZ-W).
6J. A. Tripe to Customs Department, 8 July 1932, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
7James Minto, Graham of Kalimpong (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1974), 106.
8The lecture was also published: John Graham, ‘The Education of the Anglo-Indian Child’, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 83, no. 4279 (1934): 22–46.
9Ibid., 40.
10Minto, Graham of Kalimpong, 120.
11Ibid., 120–1.
12I explore placement in India in more detail in Chapter 7 ‘Alternate Futures’, in Jane McCabe, ‘Kalimpong Kids: The Lives and Labours of Anglo-Indian Adolescents Resettled in New Zealand between 1908 and 1938’ (PhD diss, University of Otago, 2014).
13‘Pour Les Intimes’, Dr Graham’s Diary (DGD) 1937, transcribed by James Purdie, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, National Library of Scotland (NLS), Edinburgh, 30.
14DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 33.
15‘Notes in Passing’, Auckland Star, 14 August 1937.
16Aside from James Beattie’s attention to the community in Nelson, little scholarly attention has been paid to British settlers who arrived in the Dominion via non-settler colonies. This is unsurprising given that their entry into New Zealand did not require any differential treatment from settlers who came directly from Britain; it was, however, a decidedly different path and one that is worthy of future research. James Beattie, Empire and Environmental Anxiety: Health, Science, Art and Conservation, 1800–1920 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 59.
17DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 45.
18Ibid., 30.
19Ibid., 40.
20Ibid.
21‘His handshake melts the most hardened sinner’, one businessman claimed. Minto, Graham of Kalimpong, 62.
22John Graham, ‘Kalimpong, India’, Auckland broadcast, 9 August 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS.
23DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 46.
24John Graham, Auckland broadcast, 9 August 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS.
25Ibid., 35.
26Ibid.
27Ibid., 43.
28Ibid., 42. The Napier earthquake remains New Zealand’s worst natural disaster, causing widespread devastation and taking the lives of 256 people.
29Ibid.
30Ibid., 35.
31Ibid., 38.
32Ibid., 47.
33Ibid., 42.
34DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 32.
35Ibid., 36.
36Ibid.
37John Graham, Auckland broadcast, 9 August 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2NLS.
38DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 31.
39Ibid., 42.
40Historian Gwen Parsons has analysed the post-war benefits available to returned servicemen in New Zealand. Reading her findings with the Kalimpong men in mind, they appear to have been included and excluded on similar terms as the wider population. Gwen A. Parsons, ‘The Many Derelicts of the War? Great War Veterans and Repatriation in Dunedin and Ashburton, 1918 to 1928’ (PhD diss., University of Otago, 2008).
41DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 35.
42Ibid., 38.
43DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 40.
44Ibid.
45Parsons, ‘The Many Derelicts of War?’, 12.
46DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 33.
47Ibid., 46.
48Interview with Mary Milne, Wellington, November 2011. Cone private collection, Christchurch.
49Ibid., 31.
50John Graham, ‘The Call of India’, Wellington broadcast, 4 July 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
51‘Future of India’, Evening Post, 30 June 1937.
52John Graham, Auckland broadcast, 9 August 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS.
53Ibid.
54Ibid.
55DGD 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:2, NLS, 48.
56‘World Union: Missionary’s Hope’, Evening Post, 3 November 1937.
57Ibid.
58E. D. Good to Hon Minister, 13 September 1937, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Eurasians, Anglo-Burmese, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
59Ibid.
60Ibid.
61Ibid.
62Ibid.
63Ibid.
64Mark Fagan, for the minister of Customs, to John Graham, 21 September 1937, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
65‘Anglo-Indians – Frozen Out: From the “Listener” ’, SACHM 37, no. 2 (1938): 10.
66Permanent Entry Record Books, 1926–1938, Department of Labour, R19007318, ANZ-W.
67‘Farm Workers: Eurasian Youths’, Evening Post, 22 November 1938.
68‘A White Australia’, SACHM 37, no. 4 (1938): 27.
69‘New Zealand Notes’, SACHM 38, no. 1 (1939): 5.
70Ibid.
71Controller of Customs to Hon. Minister, 13 February 1939, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, ANZ-W.
72John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
73‘News of the Day’, Evening Post, 15 November 1939.
74Ibid.
75John Graham, Typed notes, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:15:1, NLS.
76Ibid.
Chapter 7
1Annie Larsen (nee Brown) to James Purdie, 28 October 1951, Purdie Letters 1951–2, 6039:14:2, Kalimpong Papers, National Library of Scotland (NLS), Edinburgh.
2Tony Ballantyne, ‘India in New Zealand’, in Webs of Empire: Locating New Zealand’s Colonial Past (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2012), chapter 4, 99; and Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, ‘In the Shadow of the Empire: India-New Zealand Relations since 1947’, in India in New Zealand: Local Identities, Global Relations, ed. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2010), 168–9.
3James Minto, Graham of Kalimpong (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1974), 120.
4Simon Mainwaring, A Century of Children (Kalimpong: Dr Graham’s Homes, 2000), 62.
5Ibid., 63.
6Minto, Graham of Kalimpong, 146–8.
7Ibid., 148–9. In New Zealand, Graham’s death was mentioned in ‘Cables in Brief’, New Zealand Herald, 18 May 1942, 6, and the Presbyterian newsletter, The Outlook, PARC, Dunedin.
8Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 67.
9One lakh = 100,000 rupees, around US$1,500 at current exchange rates, equivalent to around US$30,000 when adjusted for inflation.
10Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 72.
11Andrew May used this collection for his article, ‘Exiles from the Children’s City: Archives, Imperial Identities and the Juvenile Emigration of Anglo-Indians from Kalimpong to Australasia’, Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 14, no. 1 (2013).
12Thornton Kennedy to James Purdie, 28 July 1947, Purdie Letters 1947–9, 6039:13:2, NLS.
13Frank Donaldson to James Purdie, 25 January 1949, Purdie Letters 1947–9, 6039:13:2, NLS.
14Kenneth Storey to James Purdie, 11 August 1947, Purdie Letters 1947–9, 6039:13:2, NLS.
15The 1948 Citizenship Act initiated the formal process by which New Zealand citizenship was conferred. In 1949, this national citizenship was extended to Indian residents. But as Malcolm McKinnon suggests, family connections still largely determined the granting of permits: Immigrants and Citizens: New Zealanders and Asian Immigration in Historical Context (Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, 1996), 41.
16Known exceptions to this were George Langmore, who visited India several times, and two Kalimpong women who went abroad in the 1930s: Kate Sarkies visited her brother in India, and the Dinning sisters were taken on a European tour by their tea planter father, who returned to New Zealand with them.
17‘Back from New Zealand’, SACHM 26, nos. 1/2 (1926): 20. [title not recorded] SACHM 36, nos. 3/4 (1936): [page number not recorded].
18John Graham, ‘The Call of India’, Wellington broadcast, 4 July 1937, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:8:1, NLS.
19New Zealand Electoral rolls, accessed March 2012, http://www.ancestrylibrary.com/.
20See Brian Heenan and Sarah Johnsen, ‘To and From, There and Back: Gender in Spatial Mobility’, in Sites of Gender: Men, Women and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1939, ed. Barbara Brookes, Annabel Cooper and Robin Law (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003), 226–57; Tom Brooking, Dick Martin, David Thomson and Hamish James, ‘The Ties that Bind: Persistence in a New World Industrial Suburb, 1902–22’, Social History 24, no. 1 (1999): 55–73.
21See Chapters 4–5 in this volume.
22This exclusion of women’s labour from official data, along with the difficulty of ascertaining men’s marital status, prompted a collection of essays on gender in Dunedin. See Barbara Brookes, Annabel Cooper and Robin Law, ‘Situating Gender’, in Sites of Gender: Women, Men and Modernity in Southern Dunedin, 1890–1939, ed. Barbara Brookes, Annabel Cooper and Robin Law (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003), 2.
23Occupational codings from Olssen and Hickey’s 2005 study gave structure to this assessment. Erik Olssen and Maureen Hickey, Class and Occupation: The New Zealand Reality (Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2005), 57–90.
24See Laura Bear, Lines of the Nation: Indian Railway Workers, Bureaucracy and the Intimate Historical Self (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), passim.
25Personal communication with Niall Allcock, 26 July 2013.
26J. G. Taylor to Whom It May Concern, 4 May 1937, Leith private collection, Levin.
27Ibid.
28‘Farm Workers: Eurasian Youths, Party from India’, Evening Post, 22 November 1938.
29Personal communication with Joan Cudby-Leith (Fred’s wife) and Martin Leith, Levin, 15 November 2012.
30Ibid.
31Interview with Beryl Mortimer (nee Radcliffe), Queensland, Australia, January 2014.
32See Lionel Caplan, ‘The Spirit of Emigration’, in Children of Colonialism: Anglo-Indians in a Postcolonial World (Oxford: Berg, 2001), 129–55.
33Ibid.
34Peter Moller to John Graham, 1 December 1925, Moller file, DGHA.
35Peter Moller to John Graham, 15 February 1925, Moller file, DGHA.
36Peter Moller to John Graham, 16 April 1927, Moller file, DGHA.
37As outlined in Chapter 5, Charles decided against emigrating with his sister Dora in 1920 but changed his mind soon afterwards and wrote frequently to the Homes requesting assistance in order to do so.
38Peter Moller to John Graham, 21 December 1925, Moller file, DGHA.
39Ibid.
40Peter Moller to James Purdie, 2 August 1926, Moller file, DGHA.
41Peter Moller to James Purdie, 24 October 1926, Moller file, DGHA.
42Ibid.
43Ibid.
44Peter Moller to James Purdie, 24 October 1926, Moller file, DGHA.
45Peter Moller to James Purdie, c. 1930 [undated], Moller file. Peter was likely referring to labour unrest that reached new heights in 1930. See Sugata Bose, Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal since 1770 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 163–4; Bear, Lines of the Nation, 99–105.
46Peter Moller to James Purdie, 10 November 1930, Moller file, DGHA.
47Peter Moller to John Graham, 4 July 1932, Moller file, DGHA.
48Peter Moller to John Graham, 29 November 1932, Moller file, DGHA.
49Peter Moller to John Graham, 25 October 1936, Moller file, DGHA.
50Peter Moller to James Duncan, 4 November 1947, Moller file, DGHA.
51Peter Moller to James Duncan, 22 May 1953, Moller file, DGHA.
52Ibid.
53Peter Moller to James Duncan, 26 April 1956, Moller file, DGHA.
54George Gammie to James Purdie, 29 July 1931, Gammie file, DGHA.
55Ibid.
56Gavin Gammie to James Purdie, 31 October 1933, Gammie file, DGHA.
57Gavin Gammie to James Purdie, 30 December 1934, Gammie file, DGHA.
58Gavin Gammie to James Purdie, 4 June 1936, Gammie file, DGHA.
59Gavin Gammie to James Purdie, 30 December 1934, Gammie file, DGHA.
60Gavin Gammie to James Purdie, 4 June 1936, Gammie file, DGHA.
61Gavin Gammie to James Purdie, 10 January 1938, Gammie file, DGHA.
62Ibid.
63Gavin Gammie to John Graham, 15 January 1939, Gammie file, DGHA.
64Miranda Wiseham to James Purdie, 7 January 1938, Gammie file, DGHA.
65See Thomas Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 177–9.
66Mabel Barnes to John Graham, c. August 1936 [date concealed], Gammie file, DGHA.
67A. E. C. Barnes to John Graham, 6 August 1938, Gammie file, DGHA.
68John Graham to A. E. C. Barnes, 10 August 1938, Gammie file, DGHA.
69Betty Gammie to James Purdie, 20 September 1938; Fergus Gammie to James Purdie, 27 September 1937, Gammie file, DGHA.
70John Graham to A. E. C. Barnes, 8 November 1938, Gammie file, DGHA.
71A. E. C. Barnes to John Graham, 4 February 1939, Gammie file, DGHA.
72H. W. Bacon to John Graham, 10 March 1939, Gammie file, DGHA.
73H. W. Bacon to John Graham, 4 April 1939, Gammie file, DGHA.
74Alexa Gammie to James Purdie, c. April 1939 [undated], Gammie file, DGHA.
75Betty Hall (nee Gammie) to James Purdie, 10 September 1940, Gammie file, DGHA.
76Jinny Joyce to James Purdie, 16 April 1941, Gammie file, DGHA.
77Alexa Bibby (nee Gammie) to James Purdie, 20 July 1943, Gammie file, DGHA.
78Ibid.
79Personal communication with the Gammie family, 13 November 2011.
80Dorothy McMenamin has published a wonderful collection of interviews with Anglo-Indians who emigrated to southern New Zealand in the 1940s, including one Homes graduate. McMenamin, Raj Days to Downunder: Voices from Anglo-India to New Zealand (Christchurch: Dorothy McMenamin, 2010).
81‘Immigration of Eurasians’, Memorandum, 23 July 1947, General Papers: Anglo-Indians, Customs Personal File, R18786833, Archives New Zealand, Wellington office (ANZ-W).
82Margaret Olsen to James Purdie, 1 January 1950, Purdie Letters 1950, 6039:14:1, NLS.
83Ibid.
84Ibid.
85Ella Horgan to James Purdie, 30 June 1952, Purdie Letters 1951–2, 6039:14:2, NLS.
86Kate Wilson to James Purdie, 1 June 1952, Purdie Letters 1951–2, 6039:14:2, NLS.
87Ella Horgan to James Purdie, 30 June 1952, Purdie Letters 1951–2, 6039:14:2, NLS.
88Though Fergusson served in India during the Second World War, his specific connection to the Kalimpong community is not known.
89Thuten Kesang, the New Zealand committee representative from 1975 and still at the time of writing, was one of these later emigrants.
90In Kesang Tseten’s documentary film We Homes Chaps (Nepal: Filmmakers Library, 2001) a Homes graduate of the 1970s tells a familiar story of a ‘tea planter, getting involved with a local girl’ and sending his two children separately to the Homes, each remaining unaware that they had a sibling until many years later. The interviewee eventually traced her mother’s whereabouts, only to discover that she had died several months earlier.
91Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 100–5.
92Mainwaring, A Century of Children, 124.
93Isabella Gammie (nee Leith) to James Purdie, 22 August 1951, Purdie Letters 1951–2, 6039:14:2, Kalimpong Papers, NLS.
94Alexa Bibby (nee Gammie) to Mrs Duncan, 13 December 1951. Gammie file, DGHA.
Chapter 8
1Interview with Gilbert Hawkins, Wellsford, Northland, November 2011.
2Deborah Cohen, Family Secrets: Living with Shame from the Victorians to the Present Day (London: Penguin Books, 2013), passim. Barbara Brookes has been a key contributor to this field in New Zealand historiography. See Brookes, ‘Shame and Its Histories in the Twentieth Century’, Journal of New Zealand Studies 9 (2010): 37–42.
3I have written permission to use all of the informal communications cited below.
4Tanya Evans, ‘Secrets and Lies: The Radical Potential of Family History’, History Workshop Journal 71 (2011): 56.
5Written communication from Lou Holder, 26 February 2013.
6Personal communication with Gavin Mortimore, 15 October 2011.
7Jeanette was Rend’s sister in Wellington, referred to as Jean in earlier chapters.
8Personal communication with Patsy Cowen, 1 February 2013.
9Personal communication with Barbara Cox, 1 February 2013.
10Written communication from Emma Punter, 28 April 2013.
11Written communication from Matthew Sturge, 26 July 2013.
12Interview with Yvonne Gale, Wanaka, February 2013.
13Ibid.
14Personal communication with Yvonne Gale, February 2013.
15Personal communication with Lou Holder, 17 March 2013.
16Written communication from Brian Hepenstall, 13 February 2013.
17Personal communication with Niall Allcock, 26 July 2013.
18Personal communication with Judy Wivell, Dunedin, 23 April 2013.
19Written communication from Maryellen Chandler, 3 April 2014.
20Personal communication with Joan Cudby-Leith and Martin Leith, 15 November 2011.
21Personal communication with Mary Milne, 11 March 2012.
22Interview with Mary Milne, Wellington, November 2012.
23Interview with Ian Spalding and Margaret Matterson, Auckland, November 2011.
24Ibid.
25Personal communication with Vic Williams, 2 February 2013.
26Personal communication with Sylvia Slater, 13 November 2011.
27Cohen, Family Secrets, xii–xv.
28Anne Beckett, Gammie group interview, Wellington, November 2012.
29Personal communication with Leslie Gammie, Hamilton, November 2011.
30Personal communication with the Gammie family and Sylvia Slater, 13 November 2011.
31Gammie group interview, Wellington, November 2012.
32Mary Milne interview, Wellington, November 2012.
33Anne Beckett, Gammie group interview, Wellington, November 2012.
34Personal communication with Maryellen Chandler, 27 January 2013.
35Jim is referring to Sylvia’s home.
36Gammie group interview, Wellington, November 2012.
37Written communication from Ruth O’Connor, February 2013.
38Ibid.
39Personal communication with Clyde Stewart, 25 January 2013.
40Personal communication with Andrea Stewart, 24 January 2013.
41Personal communication with Gaynor Cullinan, 20 October 2011.
42Ibid.
43Interview with Don McCabe, Dunedin, April 2009.
44Ibid.
45Interview with Mary Milne, Wellington, November 2012.
46Angela Wanhalla, In/visible Sight: The Mixed-Descent Families of Southern New Zealand (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2009); Angela Wanhalla, Matters of the Heart: A History of Interracial Marriage in New Zealand (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2013); Damon Salesa, Racial Crossings: Race, Intermarriage and the Victorian British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Manying Ip, Being Māori-Chinese: Mixed Identities (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2008); Senka Bozic-Vrbancic, Tarara: Croats and Māori in New Zealand: Memory, Belonging, Identity (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2008).
47Wanhalla, In/visible Sight, 2.
48James Minto, Graham of Kalimpong (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1974), 75.
49Personal communication with Maryellen Chandler, 27 January 2013.
50About 90 per cent of the Māori population lives in the North Island; there has been a slight trend southwards of late. http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-about-maori-english.aspx.
51Jacqueline Leckie, ‘In Defence of Race and Empire: The White New Zealand League at Pukekohe’, New Zealand Journal of History 19, no. 2 (1985): 103–29. Personal communication with Judy Wivell, Dunedin, 23 April 2013.
52Interview with Pam Gardiner, Auckland, November 2011. Leckie found that certain establishments in Pukekohe continued to refuse to provide services to Indians, Chinese and Māori into the 1950s: Leckie, ‘In Defence of Race and Empire’, 123.
53Interview with Ian Spalding and Margaret Matterson, Auckland, November 2011.
54Ibid.
55This community is the focus of Bozic-Vrbancic’s Tarara. See also Adrienne Puckey, Trading Cultures: A History of the Far North (Wellington: Huia Publishers, 2011), 154–5.
56Interview with Ian Spalding and Margaret Matterson, Auckland, November 2011.
57Wanhalla discusses the use of ‘half-caste’ or ‘quarter-caste’ terminology in official definitions of Māori identity in In/visible Sight, 110. Wanhalla has also shown there was no established ‘mixed’ identity among interracial Māori communities in southern New Zealand, but does refer to a mixed-race ‘subculture’ in the North Island. See ibid., 45, and Judith Binney ‘ “In-Between Lives”: Studies from within a Colonial Society’, in Disputed Histories: Imagining New Zealand’s Pasts, ed. Tony Ballantyne and Brian Moloughney (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2006), 93–118.
58Emma Jinhua Teng discusses of the implications of ‘looking Chinese’ and related claims of authenticity. Eurasian: Mixed Identities in the United States, China and Hong Kong, 1842–1943 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 17–18.
59Māori were prohibited from drinking in public bars until the Licensing Amendment Act was passed in 1948. Marten Hutt, Māori and Alcohol: A History (Wellington: Health Services Research Centre, 1999), 72.
60Personal communication with Sylvia Slater, 13 November 2011.
61Interview with Mary Milne, Wellington, November 2012.
62Personal communication with Richard Cone, Christchurch, 8 November 2011.
63Ibid.
64Interview with Pam Gardiner, Auckland, November 2011.
65Gammie group interview, Wellington, November 2012. A local Nepali speaker, Rajni Wilson (who grew up in Kalimpong but now lives in Dunedin), confirmed that lhata is a derogatory Nepali term. Lhata appears in Simon Mainwaring’s appendix ‘Homes slang’ as meaning ‘dim-witted’. Mainwaring, A Century of Children (Kalimpong: Dr Graham’s Homes, 2000), 196. Rajni could not understand the other phrases repeated by the Gammies. They are possibly from the Khasi language, Isabella Gammie’s mother’s community.
66Personal communication with Anne Beckett, 22 October 2011.
67Personal communication with Mary Milne, 11 March 2012.
68Ibid.
69Personal communication with Judy Wivell, Dunedin, 23 April 2013.
70Gammie group interview, Wellington, November 2012.
71Interview with Gilbert Hawkins, Wellsford, Northland, November 2011.
72Personal communication with Brian Hepenstall, 13 February 2013.
73Personal communication with Vic Williams, 2 February 2013.
74Interview with Pam Gardiner, Auckland, November 2011.
75Interview with Ian Spalding and Margaret Matterson, Auckland, November 2011.
76Interview with Mary Milne, Wellington, November 2012.
77Personal communication with Judy Wivell, Dunedin, 23 April 2013.
78Durba Ghosh, Sex and the Family in Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
79Jessie Twist (nee Kennedy) to James Purdie, 28 March 1950, Purdie Letters 1950, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:14:1, NLS; Isabella Gammie (nee Leith) to James Purdie, 22 August 1951, Purdie Letters 1951–, Kalimpong Papers, 6039:14:2, NLS.
80Death notice, Eva Masson, 19 February 1998, Nelson Provincial Museum, Nelson.
81Interview with Gilbert Hawkins, Wellsford, Northland, November 2011.
82In the course of the study I have been in contact with descendants of 72 of the 130 Kalimpong emigrants. Copies of Homes personal files have been retrieved by at least 40 of those families.
83Written communication from Carole Duffield, 9 June 2013.
84Interview with Gilbert Hawkins, Wellsford, Northland, November 2011.
85Interview with Pam Gardiner, Auckland, November 2011.
86Interview with Ron Gammie, Wellington, November 2012.
87Ibid.
88Interview with Margaret Matterson and Ian Spalding, Auckland, November 2011.
89Interview with Yvonne Gale, Wanaka, February 2013.
90Note that Mary asks what she is after some fellow emigrants questioning of her racial status. Mavis Haslett to John Graham, 10 January 1922, Haslett file, Dr Graham’s Homes Archive (DGHA), Kalimpong.
91Personal communication with Lou Holder, 17 March 2013.
92Interview with Ian Spalding and Margaret Matterson, Auckland, November 2011.
93Interview with Yvonne Gale, Wanaka, February 2013.
94Cohen, Family Secrets, xii.
95Interview with Gilbert Hawkins, Wellsford, Northland, November 2012.
96Written communication from Lou Holder, 17 March 2013.
97Written communication from Anne Beckett, 4 April 2012.
Conclusion
1Sara Ahmed, Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others (London: Duke University Press, 2006).
2Michael Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonisation (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 17.