Navigating Nationalism and Neutrality: Irish-American Opinion and the 1916 Rising

Laoise Kiernan McDaid

BA History, Politics and Sociology, 2023 MA Public Policy, 2024

This paper argues that reporting in The Advocate reveals how Irish-American opinion in New York evolved rapidly during the weeks following the Easter Rising, shifting from anxiety over neutrality and German connections toward sympathy for the rebels following British reprisals and executions. This study was conducted using reporting from The Advocate newspaper. The Advocate was an Irish-American weekly newspaper which was published in New York City from 1893 – 1988. The American Irish Historical Society (AIHS) currently holds an almost complete record of The Advocate publications as part of their microfilm collection which enabled this primary research. By analysing headlines, editorials, and reports from Irish-American organisations, this paper traces the evolution of political sentiment within New York"s Irish diaspora in the weeks following the Rising. The Advocate was an excellent source of information in this analysis because it directly represented the Irish American opinion by giving these diaspora organizations and groups a space to publish the outcomes of their meetings as well as opinion pieces. The Advocate also extensively covered the Easter Rising in April and May 1916. This is largely because of it being an Irish American publication and having an invested interest in the subject. This frequent reporting allows researchers to trace the changes in opinion which were occurring in New York. Whilst, The Advocate was a Nationalist newspaper when it comes to the Easter Rising it was not ideologically uniform. It provides a space for competing narratives and acts as a mediator between British official discourse, Irish Nationalist sentiment, and American political concerns. This hybridity is crucial to capture the divisions and differing opinions existing within Irish America.    

Section 1 – The Easter Rising and the Political Climate in 1916 America 

The Easter Rising was a failed uprising organized by the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) which took place in Dublin from 24-29 April 1916. A force of 1,200 men took control of Dublin city center and declared Ireland to be an independent nation. They read out the Proclamation of the Irish Republic setting out their vision and ideals for an independent Ireland. Fighting lasted five days before the leaders surrendered. This was because of the extreme casualties occurring. 485 people were killed with many of these being civilians. All leaders were imprisoned in Kilmainham Gaol and most were summarily executed^[1]. One organizer of the Rising was British diplomat, Roger Casement. Casement, like several other Rising leaders, travelled to New York in 1914 to promote the cause of Irish Independence and to raise funds for the Nationalist group, the Irish Volunteers. Casement established links with exiled Nationalists in New York, especially Clan na Gael^[2]. In August 1914, as World War I was breaking, Casement and fellow Irish Nationalist John Devoy organised a meeting in New York with a high level German diplomat, Count Bernstorff. They proposed a mutually beneficial plan in which Germany would sell arms to Irish revolutionaries and in turn the Irish would plan a rebellion against England which would divert troops from Germany^[3] In October 1914, as plans for the Rising came together, Casement sailed from New York to Germany. He travelled with a false passport and was financed by the New York-based group, Clan na Gael. Casement spent his time in Germany negotiating a declaration which stated that Germany would not invade Ireland in a manner which resembled invasion or which overthrows native institutions^[4].Casement also attempted to create an Irish Brigade formed from Irish prisoners of war being held in Germany. In April 1916, Germany offered the Revolutionaries twenty thousand rifles, ten machine guns and accompanying ammunition. However, these weapons never reached Ireland. The British intercepted communications and anticipated the attempt to land arms in Ireland. The shipment was apprehended and Casement was tried and executed for treason in Britain.^[5]Whilst the Rising was initially considered a failure it swiftly turned into a catalyst for the Irish War of Independence. People were outraged at the cruel treatment of the rising leaders, and a new, younger leadership used them as martyrs for the cause and were able to mobilize a nationwide war of independence in 1919^[6].  The events of the Rising were reported around the world and even made the front page of the New York Times for 14 consecutive days^[7].  

In April 1916, the United States of America (USA) still maintained a neutral status in World War I, not entering the War until April 6, 1917.  At this point the American public largely favored neutrality until early 1917^[8]. Therefore, reports of German involvement in the Easter Rising exacerbated fears about the US"s neutral status. This was especially worrisome to those in New York city due to its large immigrant communities and the fact that many Irish Nationalist groups and publications such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians were headquartered in New York. Groups such as Clan na Gael having been explicitly linked with a German plot worried many in New York holding less radical Nationalist views.  Many Irish Nationalist groups in New York had longstanding links with the Dublin based leaders and now had to be careful about appearing pro-German.  

Section 2 – Initial Media Coverage and Wartime Anxiety 

Initial coverage begins in The Advocate on 29 April and from the outset reflects state-oriented anxiety. The headline of an article on this first day of reporting reads "U.S to probe abettors here of Irish Revolt". This article explains that there were suspicions of Irish Nationalists in New York having participated in the organizing of the Rising. Phrases like "information pointing to the probable complicity of Irish Americans in the Dublin rebellion was transmitted from various agents particularly in New York" suggests fears of subversive transnational networks and the reference to investigations “particularly in New York” positions the city as a hub of revolutionary coordination. The key themes here involve the criminalization of Irish-American activism, fear of violation of U.S neutrality, and a construction of Irish Nationalism as a potentially disloyal movement. This aligns with broader Wartime paranoia about immigrant political activity at the time. New York was a hub of anxiety relating to immigrant political activity due to the escalating World War. There were fears of foreign loyalties threatening  American neutrality and by extension security. New York was a city with a large population of first and second generation immigrants which authorities and many members of the general public feared would bring the European conflict too close to America. German- American"s were the largest ethnic group in the city and were subject to severe detestation and any political organizing was viewed as a threat by groups like the Mayor’s Committee on National Defense. Many Jewish and German immigrants on the Lower East Side were active in anti-war and socialist groups which were held with suspicion by the government5. This anxiety lead to a push for stricter immigration policies and the creation of literacy tests and immigration restrictions in the 1917 Immigration Act^[9].  

In this same newspaper, most of the reporting is derived from comments being made in the British House of Commons. Another article claims the rebellion had spread to many parts of Ireland. This was reported based upon comments made by British officials in the House of Commons. One is headlined "All Ireland now under Martial Law" and reports that there were "indications of a spread of movement to other parts of Ireland especially in the West and South". It would soon be discovered that fighting was largely contained to Dublin with the exception of small areas in which additional fighting occurred. These statements present a somewhat sensationalized version of the Rising which may have contributed to the initial significant anti-Rising sentiment in New York.  These articles also state that troops in Ireland have been and are being strongly reinforced. The arrival of Reinforcements and instatement of martial law in Ireland are emphasized, presenting a legitimate state response to disorder. This article also references statements made by John Redmond who was an Irish MP in the House of Commons. He was an advocate for Home Rule in Ireland but had encouraged his supporters to join the British army during WW1 in order to support the Allied War effort. He is quoted as condemning the rising and arguing that most people in Ireland are regarding it with feelings of detestation and horror.  The inclusion of John Redmond is crucial; his quote condemning the Rising reflects constitutional nationalism, not revolutionary separatism. This signals that early coverage privileged moderate, pro-British Irish voices. These articles reflect that at this point The Advocate’s reporting is largely dependent on information coming directly from Britain, and is reflecting mainstream, establishment Irish American opinion. Professor at Notre Dame, Robert Schmuhl notes that journalists covering the events in Ireland faced significant difficulties because they were forced to rely heavily upon British government statements, interviews with travellers returning from Dublin, and anti-rebel Irish politicians in Britain^[10]. This contributed to the circulation of exaggerated and often hostile interpretations of the rebellion during its early stages.  The following edition published on May 6 continues a largely hostile framing of the rising. The first headline reads "Wreaking Vengeance on Irish Rebels". It explains that leaders are facing death by court martial and long-term imprisonment. It also mentions that "The British Authorities in Ireland are inclined to show scant mercy to those who sacrificed all in a vain attempt to set up a Republic in Ireland". The leaders continue to be associated to foreign support in Germany and most adherents being previously known to police. This article condemns Irish Americans who are not in support of neutrality stating this to be disloyal to the United States. These articles reflect a tension which existed between Irish identity and American loyalty wherein supporting Irish independence may cause one to be viewed as Un-American.  

Section 3 – The shifting Narrative and growing sympathy 

The next edition of The Advocate, published on 13 May 1916 marks a significant turning point in the newspaper's coverage of the Easter Rising and reveals growing divisions within the Irish-American community in New York. A prominent first page article, titled "John McCormack to sing for benefit of Dublin sufferers" details a fundraising event organised in New York to provide financial assistance to those imprisoned and affected by the violence in Dublin. The appearance of such benefit campaigns demonstrates that sympathy for the rebels and civilians in Ireland was rapidly increasing among sections of Irish-America. Unlike earlier reports which had focused heavily on questions of neutrality, legality, and German involvement, coverage now became increasingly centered on the human cost of British reprisals and the suffering of those in Ireland. It is evident from this edition that news of the executions and military reprisals carried out by British authorities had reached New York and was beginning to transform public opinion. Reports from Irish-American organisations adopted highly emotive language in their condemnations of British actions. The Gaelic Society declared its "abhorrence of the recent murders of Irish Patriots by the British Government" whilst other groups refer to their actions as "butcheries". The Advocate further reports that parliamentary questioning in Britain revealed that a "reign of terror" had ensued in Dublin following the surrender of the Rising leaders. Such language represents a dramatic shift from the cautious and often hostile tone present in the newspaper"s earlier reporting. The rebels were no longer primarily portrayed as irresponsible insurgents whose actions threatened American neutrality but increasingly as victims of British oppression.

By the end of May 1916, this transformation in tone had become even more pronounced. Reports in The Advocate detailed the executions of the British leaders and described British actions as “cold blooded killings” and discuss widespread “military excesses.” The newspaper increasingly frames the British response as disproportionate and cruel, encouraging readers to sympathise with those who had participated in the rebellion. Consequently, the image of the rebels underwent a substantial redefinition within Irish-American discourse. Men who had previously been described as “vain insurgents” were now portrayed as “martyrs and patriots” who had sacrificed their lives for Irish freedom. Emotive and romanticised language replaced earlier scepticism and caution, with the leaders frequently characterised as “poets and dreamers.” This shift demonstrates how British reprisals acted as a catalyst in reshaping Irish-American opinion, transforming the Rising from what many initially viewed as a failed and reckless rebellion into a heroic Nationalist sacrifice. 

Section 4 - Some Notes on the Reporting

A striking feature of The Advocate’s reporting throughout this period is the central role given to Irish-American diaspora organisations. The prominence of these groups within the newspaper reflects both their influence within the Irish-American community and their importance in shaping public opinion in New York. Organisations such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians, the Gaelic League, and various county associations regularly published resolutions, organised meetings, and promoted fundraising campaigns for those affected by the Rising. Through these activities, the newspaper functioned not merely as a source of information, but also as a platform through which Irish-American political identity was publicly negotiated and expressed.

However, the language used by many of these organisations also reveals the cautious position they occupied within the wider political climate of the United States during the First World War. Numerous resolutions pledged support for Irish independence only “in any way compatible with American citizenship” or used similar phrasing. Such statements illustrate the delicate balancing act Irish-American groups attempted to maintain. While many wished to express solidarity with Irish nationalism and condemn British actions in Ireland, they were also conscious of growing suspicion toward immigrant political activism and anxious to avoid appearing disloyal to the United States. This tension between ethnic nationalism and American civic loyalty is a defining feature of the newspaper's coverage and highlights the complexities of Irish-American identity during this period.

Conclusion 

The reaction of the Irish-American community in New York to the Easter Rising was neither immediate nor uniform. Early reporting in The Advocate largely reflected caution, uncertainty, and concern regarding the implications of the rebellion for American neutrality during the First World War. Initial coverage relied heavily upon British official sources and often framed the Rising as a reckless and misguided revolt linked to German interference. Within Irish-America itself, significant divisions emerged between constitutional nationalists, radical republicans, and those primarily concerned with demonstrating loyalty to the United States.

However, the tone of reporting shifted dramatically in the weeks following the surrender. As details of the executions and British reprisals became increasingly known, sympathy for the rebels grew substantially within Irish-American communities. The language used in The Advocate evolved from describing the insurgents as irresponsible revolutionaries to portraying them as martyrs who had sacrificed themselves for Irish freedom. British military actions, rather than the rebellion itself, became the central focus of outrage and played a decisive role in transforming public opinion.

The reporting examined in this paper demonstrates that The Advocate functioned as more than simply a nationalist newspaper; it acted as a forum in which competing understandings of Irish identity, political loyalty, and revolutionary action were debated within the diaspora. The newspaper reveals the complexity of Irish-American responses to the Rising and highlights the tensions many Irish-Americans experienced while attempting to reconcile support for Irish independence with loyalty to the United States. Ultimately, the transformation in coverage during April and May 1916 illustrates how rapidly political violence, state repression, and media representation could reshape diaspora opinion and contribute to the creation of the enduring martyrdom narrative surrounding the Easter Rising.

Author Bio:

Laoise Kiernan McDaid holds a BA in History, Politics and Sociology and an MA in Public Policy. Her research focuses on political identity, media, and policymaking, with particular interest in Irish nationalism, diaspora politics, and how public discourse shapes responses to conflict.