Who is Herman Mark and how did his work influence Polytechnic?

Herman Mark was a world renowned scientist and researcher whose work in polymers helped revolutionize a new world of science and technology during the late twentieth century. This project will reveal his origins, his early work as a scientist, and most importantly how his work directly influenced the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and the world.

Origins and Immigration to the United States

Herman Mark was born in Vienna, Austria, and grew up amidst the city's vibrant intellectual scene. However, with the rise of Nazi Germany and increasing persecution of jewish people, he emigrated to the United States during the Brain Drain of the late 1930s. Like many intellectuals fleeing Europe, Mark sought refuge in America, where he would go on to contribute significantly to his field.

Growing up in Vienna

Herman Mark’s early years in Vienna had a big impact on his love for science and curiosity about the world. Born in 1895, he grew up in a city full of new ideas and creative energy. Vienna was a place where music, art, and groundbreaking thoughts in psychology and politics were all happening at once. Influential figures like Sigmund Freud and Theodor Herzl were shaping the world around him, which likely inspired Mark to think deeply and ask questions. It was only a matter of time before major scientific discoveries were made in the city.

(Beginning of Herman Mark’s Biography)

We can see just how important growing up in Vienna was for Herman Mark in the quote below:

“In my boyhood, life in Vienna was like a wheel with equal parts of discipline, creativity, and sports.”

During this period, Mark collaborated with some of the greatest scientific minds of his time: Albert Einstein, Linus Pauling, and Michael Polanyi, to name just a few.” (Perec 1)

“In the beginning of the 20th century in Austria, one could say that popularization of scientific knowledge was still dominantly guided by the educational aspect. The encounter between science and popular education was only thought possible by the intermediary act of popularization”(Felt 2).

Herman Mark’s early life in Vienna, which he described as “a wheel with equal parts of discipline, creativity, and sports” (Perec 1), helped shape the kind of scientist he would become. This balanced upbringing taught him to think both logically and creatively, which played a big role in his scientific work. At the same time, in early 20th-century Austria, “popularization of scientific knowledge was still dominantly guided by the educational aspect” (Felt 8). This meant that science was seen as something to be shared with the public through teaching.

Growing up in this environment, Mark learned to value not just doing science, but also helping others understand it. That’s likely why he spent so much of his life giving lectures and working with students. His later collaborations with well-known scientists like Einstein, Pauling, and Polanyi show how his early experiences prepared him to make important contributions and support the scientific community.

Europe’s Brain Drain

As the Nazi Party rose to power in the early 1930s, the growing sense of unease across Europe became undeniable. Their extreme fascist and anti-Semitic ideologies were putting countless lives in danger, especially for Jewish people. At first, Herman Mark felt somewhat safe in Vienna, as Austria remained an independent country. But things quickly changed when Adolf Hitler began pushing his Lebensraum policy, aiming to expand German territory. Austria became the first target, and instead of resistance, the Austrian government and people largely welcomed the Nazis. In 1938, Hitler declared the Anschluss, officially annexing Austria into the Nazi Reich (Holocaust-Museum 2).

For Mark, a man of Jewish descent, the writing was on the wall. With Europe’s safeguards against the Nazis crumbling fast, he knew it was only a matter of time before the situation turned dire. He began making arrangements to leave Europe, fully aware that his safety was no longer guaranteed.

(Hitler is Welcomed by the Austrian People - March 1938)

“By early 1938, he began preparing to leave Austria by clandestinely buying platinum wire, which he bent into coat hangers while his wife knitted covers so that the hangers can be taken out the country, Mark’s son estimated that the values of the platinum was roughly around $50,000, a lot of money in the 1930s, Mark fled to Canada before accepting an offer to become an adjunct professor at the Polytechnic Institute”. (ACS 3)

This quote highlights how Herman Mark cleverly used the proceeds from the platinum to secure his escape. By selling the platinum he smuggled out of Austria, he was able to finance his journey to North America, ultimately finding refuge in Canada and later accepting a position at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.

A lot of other great minds flet Europe during this time due to the harsh conditions and laws imposed against people of jewish descent. The law shown below is an example of one of many reasons why people left.

“ 7 April 1933 law ordered that those in government positions who had at least one Jewish grandparent or were political opponents of the Nazi Party be immediately dismissed. Thousands of people lost their jobs as teachers, judges, police officers—and academics at the country’s top universities—-Over the next several years, hundreds of German scientists and other intellectuals would flee to the UK, the US, and dozens of other countries to protect their livelihoods and their lives” (Grant 2)

Some notable people who were a part of this so-called “brain drain” would be Albert Einstein (Father of Relativity) and Fritz Harber (World Renowned Chemist).

Herman Mark’s Voyage to America

We can see Herman Mark’s voyage to America by observing the numerous passports he obtained on the way out of Europe. Below is the original Austrian Passport prior to Nazi Occupation.

(Austrian Passport Cover - Prior to 1938 Anschluss)

(Austrian Passport Inside - Prior to 1938 Anschluss)

We can determine that Herman Mark initially held an Austrian passport before obtaining a German one by observing the Reichstag stamps on the adjacent page. These stamps indicate that he was still in Austria during the period when Adolf Hitler began asserting control over the country. Following the Anschluss—the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938—Mark would have been compelled to obtain a German passport as Austria was no longer recognized as an independent state..

(Nazi Germany Passport Cover - After 1938 Anschluss)

(Inside Nazi Germany Passport - After 1938 Anschluss)

Above, we see Herman Mark’s German passport, issued after Hitler’s annexation of Austria. One particularly memorable story tied to this passport is that it was confiscated when Mark was imprisoned by the Gestapo. He was only able to retrieve it by bribing one of the guards—with what amounted to an entire year's salary. After securing his release, Mark made his way to Zurich, using the passport to ultimately escape Germany via disguise.

(Herman Mark’s Immigration Identification Card - 1938)

With the help of French and English diplomats in Zurich, Switzerland, Herman Mark was able to secure a visa to enter Canada—his key to finally leaving continental Europe. The family’s journey began with a relocation to France, followed by a move to England. Eventually, Herman Mark left for Canada on his own, with his family joining him a few months later.

(American Passport - Herman Mark - 1953)

Finally, after relocating to the Polytechnic Institute—where he would spend the remainder of his life—Herman Mark became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In the late 1940s, he was issued an American passport, symbolizing his new beginning. The passport shown above, from the early 1950s, captures this final chapter of his journey.

Accomplishments and Foundation of PRI

After arriving in the United States, Herman Mark joined the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now New York University’s Tandon School of Engineering) as an adjunct professor. His groundbreaking work in polymer science helped lay the foundation for the Institute's renowned Polymer Research Institute (PRI), making it a leading center for scientific innovation in materials science.

Early Work in Vienna

After completing his mandatory military service during World War I, Herman Mark returned to the University of Vienna, where he earned his PhD in Organic Chemistry. It was during this time that he began working with various polymeric materials, with cellulose being one of the most notable natural polymers he studied (Encyclopedia 1).

In the early twentieth century, the idea that macromolecules could have molecular weights in the thousands or even millions was met with skepticism. This concept was first brought to prominence by Hermann Staudinger, who proposed that such molecules existed and were held together by long rigid rods (backbones) (ACS 2). While Herman Mark agreed with Staudinger's initial hypothesis, he diverged in his thinking. Mark did not believe that these polymers had a long, rigid backbone, as Staudinger suggested. Instead, he proposed that these macromolecules were long chains that had the flexibility to rotate, which was a significant contribution to the understanding of polymer structure (ACS 5).

“In 1926 Staudinger left Zurich to take a post at the University of Freiburg in Germany. In his farewell lecture, Staudinger discussed his concept of long chain molecules. When most of the scientists present resisted his ideas, Staudinger apparently ended by echoing Martin Luther’s famous challenge to papal authorities: “Here I stand; I can do no other” (ACS 4).

This quote shows how many scientists at the time were not convinced by Staudinger's ideas about long chain molecules. Despite his efforts to explain his theory, it was met with strong resistance from the scientific community. Staudinger’s closing words, "Here I stand; I can do no other," highlight his firm belief in his theory, even when others disagreed.

Herman Mark, seeing the divide in the scientific community over the idea of macromolecules, wanted to prove that polymers were long chains held together by covalent bonds. To do this, he studied the structure of cellulose, a natural polymer, using X-ray crystallography. He learned this technique from Michael Polanyi in the early 1920s, and it helped him gather evidence to support his ideas about the structure of polymers (Percec 2).

(Obituary Explaining Early Accomplishments.)

In 1928, Herman Mark presented his findings using X-ray crystallography at a scientific conference in Düsseldorf, Germany, to a panel of both supporters and skeptics of the macromolecule theory. While he didn’t fully convince the panel that the theory was correct, he succeeded in showing that it wasn’t entirely out of the question. His presentation helped open the door for further discussion and laid the groundwork for considering long-chain molecules more seriously. This was a pivotal moment, as it paved the way for the acceptance of polymers in industry, eventually leading to the creation of the first synthetic fiber, nylon, in the 1930s by DuPont, through the work of Wallace Carothers (Anderson 124).

(Recreation of Herman’s Cellulose X-Ray Crystallography)

Perhaps one of Herman Mark's most significant accomplishments before arriving in the United States was his development of the kinetic theory of rubber elasticity. In collaboration with his graduate student Eugene Guth, Mark was able to explain the behavior of natural polymers like rubber (Jamieson 4). Their theory helped the scientific community understand how rubber and similar materials responded to changes in temperature, stress, and pressure. This groundbreaking work not only advanced the study of polymers but also had practical implications in industries that relied on rubber, from automotive to manufacturing, which would be extremely useful for the upcoming global conflicts that were to come.

Arrival at Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and Foundation of PRI

Herman Mark arrived at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in 1940 as an adjunct professor in the chemistry department, just as World War II was beginning. Although the U.S. was not yet involved in the war, it was generating significant wealth through the Lend-Lease Program. Given Mark's deep understanding of how natural polymers like rubber functioned, he became an invaluable asset during this time (Seidl 1)

“Upon his arrival at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in 1940, Mark was assigned to the Shellac Bureau, which was under the directorship of William Gardner. Sponsored by the U.S. Shellac Import Organization, the bureau's initial purpose was to oversee the testing of shellac imports from Indonesia and India. However, with the looming threat of war and the potential disruption of these imports due to Japanese control over Southeast Asia, the bureau shifted its focus toward identifying alternative materials, including synthetic substitutes for shellac” (ACS 6).

Most of the world's natural rubber resources were controlled by Japan, and with the war escalating, the U.S. faced increasing demand for rubber. Mark played a crucial role in connecting Polytechnic with the U.S. government, offering his expertise to help ensure a steady supply of synthetic rubber, which was vital for the war effort.

Herman Mark recognized how important polymers were to the world, so he decided to create a department focused solely on their research and development. This led to the founding of the Polymer Research Institute (PRI), which is now an American Chemical Society landmark.

During World War II, the PRI worked closely with the government, offering expert advice, especially on synthetic rubber and other critical materials. After the war, the institute continued to be a major center for polymer research, with many of its professors making important discoveries in the field

“In industry, where DuPont had dominated the field, now Dow, Phillips Petroleum, Rohm and Haas, Shell, and the major rubber manufacturers developed polymer programs. Many were started by scientists who had studied or taught at PRI and all were influenced by the work of Herman Mark in establishing polymer chemistry in the United States” (ACS 2).

Influence on the Future of Polymers and Poly

This section explores the lasting impact of Herman Mark’s leadership at the Polymer Research Institute (PRI), particularly his influence on the development of biodegradable polymers. It highlights how Mark’s guidance during the late twentieth century helped shape the direction of polymer research in the early 2000s and continues to resonate today through the work of the Pinkerton Research Group at NYU Tandon, carrying forward his legacy of innovation in materials science.

Leadership and Guidance of Polytechnic

(Proposal of New R&D Programs)

Herman Mark’s leadership at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now NYU Tandon School of Engineering) significantly shaped the study of polymer science. As the chair of the Department of Chemistry in the 1970s, he petitioned for many new R&D ideas and innovations seen above which helped position Poly as a leader in polymer research. Mark’s vision for practical, industry-focused research led to breakthroughs in materials science and collaborations with government agencies and industry. His efforts in expanding research areas, such as polymer chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis, paved the way for Poly’s continued prominence in engineering and applied sciences, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to influence the institution’s focus on innovation today.

Some of Herman Mark’s most ambitious motivations involved promoting research into polymers with the potential to become biodegradable (ACS 4). His forward-thinking vision and encouragement of innovation helped lay the groundwork for important breakthroughs in this area. Although there is no clear evidence that biodegradable polymer synthesis took place at the Polytechnic Institute while Herman Mark was there, studies from the mid-1990s—especially from the University of Massachusetts—highlight the impact of Mark and his students’ earlier research. Their work laid the groundwork for later developments and helped turn the idea of biodegradable polymers into a reality during that period. This can be seen with the quote below.

“In past decades a great deal of research has been done on the synthesis of polymers and polymeric materials for long-term service. In particular, many kinds of thermally stable and chemically stable polymeric materials have been developed. Essential contributions to this field were made by Professor Herman Mark, with his remarkable ideas and research carried out by himself and his students, as well as by many other outstanding polymer scientists” (Jelinski 1)

This direction is important for the project because the development of biodegradable polymers led to many useful new technologies. Two main applications are especially important to explore. One is the use of biodegradable polymers for delivering medicine inside the body, where the material can safely break down after releasing the drug. The other is using these polymers to make plastics that can break down naturally in the environment, helping reduce plastic waste. These two areas show how important biodegradable polymers can be for both health and the environment. Both of which were researched at Polytechnic initially, and then NYU Tandon.

Notable Prior Polymer Research at NYU Poly

Between the time the University of Massachusetts published a series of papers suggesting that biodegradable polymers could be possible and the early 2010s, extensive research on these materials was conducted around the world. One particularly significant advancement came in 2011, when Professor Richard Gross led a study that demonstrated the creation of biodegradable plastic using yeast. This breakthrough highlighted the growing interest in developing sustainable materials through biological processes and marked an important step forward in the field of green chemistry (NYU 1).

(Professor Gross 2011)

“ His method involves a fairly quick, relatively low-cost way to use engineered yeast to make large quantities of omega-hydroxy fatty acids from fatty acids of plant oils. When strung together, the omega-hydroxy fatty acids form a polymer, or plastic.” (NYU 1)

The process used to create these fatty acid chains is environmentally friendly, as it eliminates the need for fossil fuels to link the monomers together. The research also highlights the use of cellulose to produce “nano-whiskers,” which act as reinforcement agents to improve the rigidity and strength of the resulting bioplastic. (NYU 1)

These innovations are important to highlight, as they set the stage for the next section of the project, which explores more advanced biodegradable polymers. This includes current research at NYU Tandon, where laboratories are developing biodegradable materials for use in medicinal delivery systems—demonstrating the growing potential of sustainable polymers in healthcare applications.

Current Status of Polymer Research at NYU Tandon

Although the Polymer Research Institute is no longer an active program at NYU Tandon, the importance of polymer research remains strong. Today, the new program focused on polymer research is led by Nathalie Pinkerton, an assistant professor, and is called the Pinkerton Research Group. The group’s primary mission is to develop soft materials for biomedical applications, with a strong emphasis on biodegradable polymers. These materials are crucial for delivering specialized medications through innovative methods, demonstrating how polymer science continues to play a pivotal role in advancing healthcare and bioengineering, building upon the legacy established by Mark and the PRI.

(Logo for Pinkerton Research Group)

The research group has recently focused on finding better ways to make PLA-b-PEG block copolymers, which are important for targeted nanoparticle drug delivery.

“ Herein, a new method for the synthesis of bifunctional HS-PLA-b-PEG-OH is described. The approach takes advantage of polymer solution properties to improve a critical purification step, and uses inexpensive and readily available PEG-diol as a starting material” (Pagels 2)

Their goal is to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of making these materials. By developing new methods, they aim to make the process more affordable and easier, while still ensuring the copolymers work well for drug delivery. This could help make biodegradable nanoparticle systems more accessible and widely used in medical treatments.

(Structure of the Block Polymers and resulting Nanoparticle)

Overall, this demonstrates just how important biodegradable polymers are in real-world applications and highlights how Herman Mark and the Polymer Research Institute had a significant impact on the ongoing research at NYU Tandon today. Their pioneering work laid the foundation for the development of materials that continue to play a crucial role in modern science and medicine, particularly in areas like drug delivery and biomedical engineering.

Legacy

(ACS Pamphlet 2003)

Herman Mark is often remembered as the pioneer or "father" of polymeric materials in the USA. A 2003 magazine published by the Polymer Research Institute highlights his major contributions and how they helped shape the reputation of both Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and the Polymer Research Group. His work has had a lasting impact on both the field of polymer science and the institution’s prestige that is still felt to this day.

“Mark was the recipient of many honorary degrees and honours, including the U.S. National Medal of Science (1979). Throughout his long career Mark visited more than a thousand scientists and engineers in more than a hundred countries, and he continued his extensive travels after his retirement.” (Britannica 1)

(Herman Mark Medals, Awards, and Honorary Degrees)

Even in the final years of his life, Herman Mark remained deeply devoted to the advancement of science and education. He continued to travel extensively, visiting universities and academic institutions around the world to deliver lectures and engage with students and researchers. His passion for sharing knowledge never waned, and he remained an active voice in the scientific community until the very end. The photo above vividly illustrates the vast number of honorary degrees and prestigious awards he received throughout his lifetime. These honors reflect not only his groundbreaking contributions to the field of polymer science, but also the profound impact he had on generations of scientists. Herman Mark's legacy extends far beyond his research—he helped shape the foundation of modern polymer chemistry and inspired a global community of scholars and innovators.

References

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Jedliński, Z., Kurcok, P., and Lenz, R. W. “Synthesis of Potentially Biodegradable Polymers.” Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A, vol. 32, no. 4, 1995, pp. 797–810. https://doi.org/10.1080/10601329508010290.

Mark, Herman. “The Early Years.” Herman F. Mark Biographical Outline, Box 1, Folder 1. Poly Archives, Bern Dibner Library, NYU Libraries, Brooklyn.

Mark, Herman. “Use in Transportation (Project Proposals).” 22 Jan. 1974. Poly Archives, Box 21, Folder 14. Bern Dibner Library, NYU Libraries, Brooklyn.

“Mark, Herman F.” Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com, 5 May 2025, https://www.encyclopedia.com.

“NAZI Territorial Aggression: The Anschluss.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-territorial-aggression-the-anschluss. Accessed 14 May 2025.

“New, but Familiar: NYU-Poly Professor Developing Bioplastic That Acts like Regular Plastic.” NYU Tandon School of Engineering - Polytechnic Institute, engineering.nyu.edu/news/new-familiar-nyu-poly-professor-developing-bioplastic-acts-regular-plastic. Accessed 23 Apr. 2025.

“Obituaries – Long Form.” 3 Mar. 1992. Poly Archives, Box 1, Folder 8. Bern Dibner Library, NYU Libraries, Brooklyn.

Pagels, Robert, et al. “Synthesis of Heterobifunctional Thiol-Poly(Lactic Acid)-b-Poly(Ethylene Glycol)-Hydroxyl for Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Applications.” Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 2019, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/macp.201600055.

Perec, Virgil, et al. “Herman F. Mark: Pioneer in Structural Chemistry, Molecular Biology, and Polymer Science.” Chem, Cell Press, 14 Dec. 2023.

Pinkerton Research Group. www.pinkertonresearch.com/. Accessed 7 Apr. 2025.

Seidl, Mark. “The Lend-Lease Program, 1941-1945.” FDR Presidential Library & Museum, www.fdrlibrary.org/lend-lease#:~:text=Lend%2DLease%20Begins%20and%20Expands%20Once%20the%20bill,vast%20quantities%20of%20food%20and%20war%20materials. Accessed 14 May 2025.

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