How Poly Involved in the Development of Polymers

Introduction

Today, polymers are ubiquitous in modern society, with applications that range from plastic bags in your delivery to high-molecule polymer fibers in medical and industrial manufacturing. Their versatility and adaptability have made them indispensable, and the prioritized material across all sectors of modern practice. However, polymer science is a relatively new discipline that, to this day, remains neither unified nor fully developed.

In the early twentieth century, knowledge of polymers remained fragmented and conceptually unclear. On the one hand, natural polymers such as rubbers were deeply intertwined with people’s lives. On the other hand, their molecular structures and behaviors under different circumstances are still mysterious, awaiting discovery. Most of the interactions with polymers rely on empirical observation and industrial practices rather than a systematic theoretical framework.

This disconnection between industrial development, theoretical understanding, and formal scientific training created a need for new institutions that could systematically disseminate knowledge and prepare engineers in this rapidly expanding field. Within this context, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (Poly), with its Polymer Research Institute and research faculties, has played a central role in transforming polymer science from scattered inquiries to a coherent field of study.

Identifying Polymer Structure: Early Structural Insights into Macromolecules

The Identity of Polymers

In the early development of Polymer Science, the fundamental nature of polymers remained uncertain. For decades, polymers were considered as colloidal aggregates rather than separate molecular entities.

Such an interpretation has a major deficiency in explaining the distinctive mechanical and structural behaviors observed in certain conventional polymers and their alternative form after the melting and reformation process that ‘re-aggregates’ the molecules in different alignment. Early studies on the mechanical deformation of rubber by Hermann Mark and Ervin István Valkó have demonstrated that properties such as elasticity and strength could not be accounted for by particulate or aggregated models. Instead, these behaviors suggest that the capability of longitudinal expansion and flexibility during re-orientation could only be performed by an underlying continuity, rather than a loose association of monomers.11

Figure 1 – Mark and Valkó’s article on the mechanical deformation of rubber （H. Mark and E.Valkó, 1930）11

Similar insights have emerged in the investigation of cellulose, where Mark has observed a highly ordered structure, characterized by the repetition of identical structural units and continuous covalent linkage. Such findings further challenge the colloidal model, as it supports that an intrinsic molecular structure must be present to maintain its morphological appearance

Figures 2 and 3 – Structural diagrams from Mark’s cellulose article (Mark, undated) 25

The structural diagrams in Figure 3 illustrate how Mark understands cellulose as a hierarchically organized macromolecular material. Where he drew individual glucan chains that aligned with one another and eventually formed a sheet-like structure in the presence of intramolecular interactions. As Mark also identified the Crystallite structures within cellulose fibre, this article reflects an early attempt by him to induce crystalinity through structural analysis.

Video 1 – Embedded video excerpt from an archival interview with Herman Mark discussing his research career at Polytechnic University (“American Chemical Society Interview with Dr. Herman F. Mark,” 1981) 20

The Emergence of Structural Techniques

To reveal the actual structure of polymers, new experimental approaches became urgently needed. Under the leadership of Mark, an interdisciplinary collaboration between chemists and physicists specializing in X-ray analysis occurred at Poly. Using the wave properties of X-rays, especially their short wavelength and ability to produce interference among intramolecular spaces, researchers will be able to back-calculate the spacing between macromolecules and deduce their molecular confirmation based on their chemical structures.17

Figure 4 – X-ray diffraction pattern of cellulose crystallite  (Mark and Meyer, 1928)17

The diffraction image shown above (Figure 4) illustrates how Mark transformed these invisible molecular arrangements into observable patterns through experimental techniques. The image itself demonstrates several important structural characteristics of the cellulose fiber. As the symmetric diffraction spots and arcs suggest the presence of ordered molecular spacing within the crystallite regions, while the circular diffuse in the middle implies a partially amorphous organization. All diffractions aligned vertically, hence indicating that the cellulose chains were oriented along the fiber axis, rather than randomly distributed. By concluding all this spacing knowledge, together with other measurements, Mark and his colleagues were able to deduce a possible pattern drawn in Figure 3.

Figure 5 – Predicted Lauric acid crystal lattice structure (Mark and Meyer, 1928)17

The reconstructed Lauric acid lattice model (Figure 5) shows how diffraction-derived measurements were translated into predicted molecular structures. By analyzing the orientation of the repeating diffraction pattern, Mark was able to infer the elongated arrangement of Lauric acid, together with their geometric organization. Moreover, by knowing the repeating CH2 units, the measurement of 17Å spacing along with the tetrahedral bond angle reflected a merger between polymer science and organic chemical principles. Hence, this figure illustrates that rather than serving simply as a visualization tool, X-ray diffraction data could be consolidated into actual structural models.

Figure 6 – Researchers working in an X-ray diffraction laboratory at Poly (“X-Ray Diffraction Lab”, undated)1

The X-ray diffraction laboratory at Poly demonstrates how those theories are being applied using specialized instrumentation within experimental practices. The electronic equipment shown in the image (Figure 6) was used to amplify and process weak diffraction signals generated when X-rays interacted with ordered molecular structures. As early diffraction systems required continuous calibration and signal interpretation, we can see from the image that one researcher was adjusting the apparatus, while another monitored the oscilloscope for real-time signals. Interpreting both experimental measurements and analysing those electronic signals, Poly was able to confirm multiple polymeric structures using such a technique.

Established Polymers as Macromolecules

Through such structural investigations, more polymer structures became clear and understood as their ordered systems, characterized by repeating subunits and general covalent connectivity.15 These findings marked a decisive shift in the interpretation of polymeric substances; polymers were defined as macromolecules – large, chain-like entities whose properties arise from their molecular structure.

“The constitution of a polymeric substance is customarily described in terms of its structural units. These may be defined in the most general terms as groups having a valence of two or more; the terminal units coming at the ends of polymer chains represent minor exceptions in that they possess a valence of one.”

— Flory, Paul J., Nobel Prize in Chemistry Winner, 1974 

 Institutionalizing Polymer Science: The Role of the Polymer Research Institute

The Need for Institutional Structure

In the mid-twentieth century, polymers began to be recognized as a promising material with broad industrial potential. Synthetic polymers are starting to be deemed as viable substitutes for traditional materials such as metals, glass, and paper, particularly in areas like household goods, packaging, and short-term storage. This growing interest contributes to a surge of polymer-related research across both the industrial and academic realms.

However, despite the expanding size of both societies, polymer research remained greatly fragmented. Without a centralized institutional framework, there was limited cooperation among researchers and restricted opportunities for ‘outsiders’ to systematically acknowledge such an industry. The absence of a platform that focuses on communication between scholars hindered the standardization of polymer science as a coherent academic discipline.

Establishment of a Research Institute 2

The establishment of the Polymer Research Institute was not a straightforward process. At the time, Poly had already begun forming research groups and entitling them as ‘Institutes’, where they have been empowered with independent research and funding structures. The most noticeable Institute at that time was the Microwave Research Institute (MRI), propelled by Ernst Weber, who later became the president of Poly (1957-1969). The endeavor made in forming these large-scale, specialized institutions later proved to be a success within the university.

In this context, proposals for a specialized polymer research institute initially encountered skepticism from the school’s executive committee, where the idea of establishing a separate center apart from current macromolecules was regarded as impractical, especially given the estimated cost that was primarily listed.16 However, the prior success of MRI, as well as the advocacy from Weber, played important roles in legitimizing such institutional expansion. It was later noted in Mark’s memoir 15  that the board was convinced after being notified of the feasibility of reusing existing laboratory infrastructure and equipment, which cut down a great portion of the expected funding.

As a result, the eventual approval of PRI (1946) can be understood not simply as the outcome of the trend of polymer research, but it is also closely associated with a broader ‘institutional shift’ within Poly aimed at supporting specialized and autonomous research under that era.2

Figure 7 – Front page of the Polymer Research Institute Brochure (Uncategorized Brochure Collection, 1980s)26                                         

Symposia as Structures of Scientific Communication 5,6

Interactive Collection – Archival symposium flyers documenting PRI Symposia （Composed on Flourish, 2026）

 (“Polymer Seminars” 1961-1968; “Polymer Symposia” 1986, 1992)5,6

By the late 1940s, regular polymer seminars were held routinely as a part of academic conduct at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Evidenced by archival records documenting an ongoing series of meetings as flyers. These symposiums are held on a biweekly basis, typically on Saturday morning at the original Poly campus on 99 Livingston Street, and follow a structured format. Sessions began at 10:00 AM and were chaired by a designated host, and continued until 3:00 PM. Each meeting featured multiple speakers, where five or six researchers working across different areas of polymer science, including synthesis, degradation, and biological applications, were presented and had discussions on their recent developments.

These symposia are essential proof of how the Polymer Research Institute conducts its academic and scientific operations. As regular meetings and seminars at PRI evolved into a prominent venue for polymer research within the United States, attracting forefront researchers, as well as industrial representatives from DuPont and Dow Chemical. During the mid-1900s, this was the place where most academic researches transit into its application.

Importantly, the influence of these symposia extended beyond the events themselves. Selected contributions were formalized through publications in leading journals such as the Journal of Polymer Science (started by Mark), which further demonstrates how these symposiums contribute to the institutional recognition of PRI. (18)

Figure 8 – Library catalog entry to Journal of Polymer Science (Accessed April, 2026)18

Knowledge Networking: The Expansion of Understanding Polymers

Interactive Map – Academic lineage and Professional network surrounding Herman Mark and Polymer Research Institute (Composed on Kumu, 2026)

Herman Mark (1940 - 1964) – At POLY

Role: Founder of PRI; Director until 1961; Dean of Faculty (1961-1964); Professor of Chemistry; Dean Emeritus

Research Focus: 

• X-ray diffraction usage in macromolecule structural prediction
• Establishment of the molecular nature of polymers
• The crystallinity of polymers

Herbert Morawetz (1950s - 1980s) 3,4,10

Role:  Professor of Chemistry; Senior PRI scholar

Research Focus:

• Behavior of soluble polymers (Dynamics and polymer chain interactions)
• Thermodynamics of macromolecules
• Structure-property relationships of polymers
• Conformational transitions of a polymer chain using fluorescent labels

Turner Alfrey (1940s - 1960s) 10

Role: Research Scientist / Faculty member at PRI

Research Focus:

• Polymerization kinetics
• Co-polymerization theory and its reaction mechanisms
• Chain growth during polymerization

Charles Overberger (1940s - 1950s)

Role: Faculty Researcher

Research Focus:

• Synthetic polymer chemistry
• Structure – reactivity relationships in polymer synthesis

Gerald Oster (1950s -1960s)

Role: Research Scientist

Research Focus:

• Polymer photochemistry
• Light-Induced reactions in macromolecules
• Physical chemistry of polymers

Frederick R. Eirich (1950s - 1970s)

Role: Polymer chemist; Editor of the Journal of Polymer Science; AHCSR Co-chairman

Research Focus:

• Polymer colloids
• Rheology (Deformation of polymer materials under flow)
• Surface chemistry
• Polymer dispersions

Ervin István Valkó 11

Role: Unidentified in PRI, but works closely with Mark

Research Focus:

• Analytical chemistry of polymeric materials
• Electrochemistry

Rudolf Brill (Mid-20th century)

Role:  Physicsits; Crystallography researcher

Research Focus:

• X-ray crystallography
• Solid-state structure of macromolecules
• Bridging physics and polymer chemistry

Robert Mesrobian 3

Role: Associate researcher at PRI

Research Focus:

• Further research Needed

Mary B. Cowman (Late 20th century) 3

Role: Associate Professor of Biochemistry

Research Focus:

• Purification and Characterization of Complex Carbohydrate Biopolymers
• Biopolymer chemistry

Mark M. Green (1970s) 3

Role: Professor of Chemistry

Research Focus:

• Stereochemical Effects in Macromolecules
• Chain Rigidity & Helical Structures
• Chirality and chain conformation

T.K. Kwei (1970s) 3

Role: Research Professor of Chemistry

Research Focus:

• Morphology and Properties of Polymer Blends
• Composite Material

Murray Goodman (1950s)

Role: Core faculty member at PRI (Second generation of leadership following Mark)

Research Focus:

•  Synthesis and properties of polypeptides
• Mechanism of α-amino acid polymerization

Jovan Mijovic (Late 1970s - 1990s)

Role: Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering

Research Focus:

• Processing-structure-property relationships
• Polymer composites and multiphase systems
• Fatigue and durability of materials

Matthew F. Schlecht (1980s)

Role: Assistant Professor of Chemistry

Research Focus:

• Synthetic organic chemistry
• Organometallic Reactions

Otto Vogl (1960 -1980s)

Role: Herman Mark Professor of Polymer Science

Research Focus:

• Aldehyde Polymerization
• Biological Behavior of Polymers
• Ring-opening Polymerization

Parallel Scholars Outside of the PRI in the 1940s

Wallace Hume Carothers (1930 -1940s) 22

Role: DuPont industrial laboratory scientist, Inventor of Nylon and Neoprene

Research Focus:

• Step Growth polymerization
• Carothers equation

Carl Shipp Marvel (1940s) 23

Role: Organic Chemistry Professor at the University of Illinois

Research Focus:

• Synthetic Organic Chemistry applied to polymers
• High-temperature and synthetic polymers
• Structure-reactivity relationships

Video 2 – Archival interview excerpt of Herman Mark discussing early polymer researchers and scientific collaborations

(“American Chemical Society Interview with Dr. Herman F. Mark,” 1981) 20

Transforming Education: Poly’s Lasting Impact on Polymer Science

Introducing Polymer Science into the Academic Curriculum 8,10

At the undergraduate level, polymer science at Poly did not appear as an individual discipline; in fact, it gradually emerged from the existing structure of traditional chemistry and chemical engineering. In course catalogs from 1962 -1964, a sample study curriculum for undergraduate students majoring in chemical engineering first introduces them to core areas such as organic chemistry, physical chemistry, thermodynamics, and chemical laboratory practices. 10 Those courses built a solid foundation to prepare students to understand polymer formation, molecular behaviors, and material properties.

Building from the elementary classes, polymer-related subjects were introduced through specific material categories. Courses that focus on rubber, cellulose, lignin, starch, resin, and other organic polymeric compounds were used as examples to demonstrate their chemical properties, not from an abstract theoretical approach. 10 Using newly produced polymers as an example, students are encountering both industrial applications and the most edge-cutting polymeric synthesis knowledge.

Junior and Senior classes demonstrated a tendency to shift from regular classrooms to actual laboratory application. Technical education in Organic Chemistry of Plastics, resin, and Unit Processing indicates that polymer science was incorporated into their curriculum with engineering practices.

Most importantly, upper-level electives offer undergraduates an opportunity to be involved in works senior scholars in PRI were focusing on. Structural Analysis with X-Rays, taught by Mark, Synthesis of High Polymers, taught by Professor Overberger and Oster, these courses included topics that were related to Principal Investigators, the lecturers themselves, forming a great chance to notice some of the most pioneering projects of polymers in that era.

In general, from the undergraduate course catalogs, it is suggested that polymer science is involved in Poly’s academic curriculum through a step-by-step process. Meanwhile, as Poly is one of the first institutes that included the study of polymer science within the undergraduate curriculum, taking advantage of the PRI resources, students are well prepared to approach polymers in both applied industrial fields and scientific studies.

Developing Graduate Training and Specialized Education 8

The development of graduate studies of polymers at Poly is more represented as a more institutionalized program rather than dispersed courses. Evidence from the course catalogs in the 1940s (1941 -1943) shows a number of graduate-level classes, designated by the ‘G’ classification, that address central topics in polymer science. From general polymer synthesis (G152), to mechanical and intramolecular behaviors of polymers (G154), and their correspondence analitical approaches (G155), the setting of those courses represents that Poly has already taken polymer studies as an important research area, strengthening the fact that it was one of the first institutes to start systematically introducing polymer science to students, with a graduate program that is 20 years earlier than the appearance of undergraduate related studies.

Graduate courses demonstrate a strong orientation toward research training; however, although plenty of courses were opened to students, many options are seldom available. It is common to see classes that will only be opened in the alternate year or two or three years afterward. Indicating that although a great breakthrough was made for establishing polymer-related programs, due to the limitations of the faculty and enrolled students, little flexibility in course arrangement is revealed as a significant issue.

Worth noticing, aside from regular polymer classes, additional linguistic studies, including Reading of Chemical German and Reading of Chemical Russian, are provided to students. These all indicate that Poly was preparing their graduates for international research publication, or, in a larger scope, for involvement in the broader scientific community of polymer research.

Later developments show the formal consolidation of such a program. Supported jointly by the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, PRI has established the program of Polymer Science and Engineering, offering M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. Such a transition marks that polymer science was now a fully institutionalized field of study, with defined degree pathways for graduate-level candidates.

Recognizing Excellence: Awards in Polymer Research at Poly 7

As polymer science becomes more established at Poly, it was also significantly noticed at the institutional level. The creation of the Excellence in Polymer Science Award suggests that polymers have become an indispensable realm of study that is worth separate evaluation and recognition. This award was granted to individuals or research groups who made the most significant contributions toward this vast, expanding field.

Figure 9 – Recipients and faculty members associated with the Excellence in Polymer Science Award

(“Excellence in Polymer Science Award,” undated) 7

Extending Influence through Professional Organizations 14

The influence of polymer science at Poly extended beyond the institution through its connections with professional organizations, most notably, the establishment of the Polymer Division by Herman Mark in the American Chemical Society (ACS). 14 Established in the early 1950s (1951), the division provides a formal space for polymer science within the chemical community, marking an important step in its branching out as a distinct discipline.

Video 3 – Herman Mark discussing his professional career and research path at Poly (“Herman Mark,” undated)20

ACS documentation (14) for the leadership record of the division shows that Mark have severed for several central roles in the first couple of years of division establishment, including Secretary, Treasurer, and eventually Chair (1955). His sustained presence in both the ACS Polymer Division and the PRI has suggested the high alignment between these two organizations in research directions and coherence in shaping the field of polymer science. Besides Mark, many other prominent figures are listed on the executive board of this division, such as Paul J Flory and Turner Alfery, who were closely connected or involved in the PRI research network.

The contribution of PRI toward such division could be further reflected in the recipients of the Herman F. Mark Polymer Chemistry Award, where awardees like Charles G. Overberger, Murray Goodman, and Otto Vogl earned the award during their PRI employment period. The recurrence of these names indicates that polymer science was being developed in a comparatively concentrated science community. In this context, Poly, through Mark and PRI, functioned beyond its regular educational roles, but also provided an active hub of scholars. They have contributed to the largest academic organization of polymers in defining and advancing such fields.

Figure 10 – ACS Division of Polymer Chemistry (logo adopted in 1976)14

National Educational Impact 13

Poly has contributed to current Polymer education in an unexpected way. The ACS polymer division is now the largest direct financial support to initiatives such as the Committee on Polymer Education (PolyEd). 13

Through this funding, PolyEd is now propelling the development of polymer studies in K12 STEM studies, including polymer modeling, handcrafting, and sustainable recycling programs in younger age groups. This illustrates how polymer science was enabled to gain a wider educational presence across the United States.

Discussion & Question:

Building on the archival evidence, an important question regarding the institutional nature and long-term trajectory of the PRI persists. Despite the centrality of Poly’s polymer research platform, PRI does not consistently appear as an independent financial or administrative entity, regardless of the Dean’s financial report or Poly’s research development summary. Meanwhile, parallel research centers, such as MRI (Microwave Research Institute), are clearly documented in archival materials, listing their patents, revenue streams, and institutional expenditures.

The absence of these records suggests that PRI may not have functioned as a fully autonomous research institution in a conventional sense. Instead, evidence from faculty funding patterns indicates that individual research, specifically associate and industrial professors, secured support through external agencies such as the NIH or other foundations. 19 And their fundings where administered at the level of labs under the chemistry department, rather than through PRI as an institutional body.

Figure 11 – Research contracts and grants supporting the Department of Chemistry

(Polytechnic Research and Development Annual Reports,”  1952-1968)23

The annual funding report from Polytechnic University’s Department of Chemistry in 1968 further illustrates this institutional structure (Figure 11). Unlike the MRI, which maintained more centralized administrative budgets, these grants and contracts documented research support distributed directly to individual faculty researchers. Moreover, PRI-associated faculty members, including Oster and Goodman, appeared alongside other departmental researchers rather than under a distinct PRI administrative category, suggesting that PRI was not financially organized as a separate institutional entity.

Those observations lead to a broader hypothesis: PRI may have operated less as a financial or administrative unit, but more as an organizational framework. Its primary function is to coordinate among research directions, the structuring of graduate education programs, and the facilitation of collaboration across the states. In this context, PRI functions as an ‘Institute within an Institute’, a conceptual and academic hub that unified polymer science sources without directly manipulating professor associates with it.

Bibliography

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Note on Citations: Archival materials retain the preferred citation form provided by the Poly Archives at the Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology. Published secondary sources are formatted according to the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition).