How PolyU Involved in the Development of Polymers

Introduction

Today, polymers are ubiquitous in modern society, with applications that range from plastic bags in your delivery to high-molecule polymer fibers in medical and industrial manufacturing. Their versatility and adaptability have made them indispensable, and the prioritized material across all sectors of modern practice. However, polymer science is a relatively new discipline that, to this day, remains neither unified nor fully developed.

In the early twentieth century, knowledge of polymers remained fragmented and conceptually unclear. On the one hand, natural polymers such as rubbers were deeply intertwined with people’s lives. On the other hand, their molecular structures and behaviors under different circumstances are still mysterious, awaiting discovery. Most of the interactions with polymers rely on empirical observation and industrial practices rather than a systematic theoretical framework.

This disconnection between industrial development, theoretical understanding, and formal scientific training created a need for new institutions that could systematically disseminate knowledge and prepare engineers in this rapidly expanding field. Within this context, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, with its Polymer Research Institute and research faculties, has played a central role in transforming polymer science from scattered inquiries to a coherent field of study.

Identifying Polymer Structure: Early Structural Insights into Macromolecules

Topic 1: The Identity of Polymers

In the early development of Polymer Science, the fundamental nature of polymers remained uncertain. For decades, polymers were considered as colloidal aggregates rather than separate molecular entities.

Such an interpretation has a major deficiency in explaining the distinctive mechanical and structural behaviors observed in certain conventional polymers and their alternative form after the melting and reformation process that ‘re-aggregates’ the molecules in different alignment. Early studies on the mechanical deformation of rubber by Hermann Mark and Ervin István Valkó have demonstrated that properties such as elasticity and strength could not be accounted for by particulate or aggregated models. Instead, these behaviors suggest that the capability of longitudinal expansion and flexibility during re-orientation could only be performed by an underlying continuity, rather than a loose association of monomers. (11)

Similar insights have emerged in the investigation of cellulose, where Mark has observed a highly ordered structure, characterized by the repetition of identical structural units and continuous covalent linkage. Such findings further challenge the colloidal model, as it supports that an intrinsic molecular structure must be present to maintain its morphological appearance.

*** Cropped Interview Video of Mark talking about his Research Path in Poly***

Topic 2: The Emergence of Structural Techniques

To reveal the actual structure of polymers, new experimental approaches became urgently needed. Under the leadership of Mark, an interdisciplinary collaboration between chemists and physicists specializing in X-ray analysis occurred at Poly. Using the wave properties of X-rays, especially their short wavelength and ability to produce interference among intramolecular spaces, researchers will be able to back-calculate the spacing between macromolecules and deduce their molecular confirmation based on their chemical structures. (17)

*** Picture of X-Ray diffraction Lab***

*** https://hdl.handle.net/2333.1/w3r22kt9***

Topic 3: Established Polymers as Macromolecules

Through such structural investigations, more polymer structures became clear and understood as their ordered systems, characterized by repeating subunits and general covalent connectivity. (15) These findings marked a decisive shift in the interpretation of polymeric substances; polymers were defined as macromolecules – large, chain-like entities whose properties arise from their molecular structure.

“The constitution of a polymeric substance is customarily described in terms of its structural units. These may be defined in the most general terms as groups having a valence of two or more; the terminal units coming at the ends of polymer chains represent minor exceptions in that they possess a valence of one.”

— Flory, Paul J., Nobel Prize in Chemistry Winner, 1974 

 Institutionalizing Polymer Science: The Role of the Polymer Research Institute

Topic 1: The Need for Institutional Structure

In the mid-twentieth century, polymers began to be recognized as a promising material with broad industrial potential. Synthetic polymers are starting to be deemed as viable substitutes for traditional materials such as metals, glass, and paper, particularly in areas like household goods, packaging, and short-term storage. This growing interest contributes to a surge of polymer-related research across both the industrial and academic realms.

However, despite the expanding size of both societies, polymer research remained greatly fragmented. Without a centralized institutional framework, there was limited cooperation among researchers and restricted opportunities for ‘outsiders’ to systematically acknowledge such an industry. The absence of a platform that focuses on communication between scholars hindered the standardization of polymer science as a coherent academic discipline.

Topic 2: Establishment of a Research Institute (2)

The establishment of the Polymer Research Institute was not a straightforward process. At the time, Poly had already begun forming research groups and entitling them as ‘Institutions’, where they have been empowered with independent research and funding structures. The most noticeable Institute at that time was the Microwave Research Institute (MRI), propelled by Ernst Weber, who later became the president of Poly (1957-1969). The endeavor made in forming these large-scale, specialized institutions later proved to be a success within the university.

In this context, proposals for a specialized polymer research institute initially encountered skepticism from the school’s executive committee, where the idea of establishing a separate center apart from current macromolecules was regarded as impractical, especially given the estimated cost that was primarily listed. (16) However, the prior success of MRI, as well as the advocacy from Weber, played important roles in legitimizing such institutional expansion. It was later noted in Mark’s memoir (15) that the board was convinced after being notified of the feasibility of reusing existing laboratory infrastructure and equipment, which cut down a great portion of the expected funding.

As a result, the eventual approval of PRI (1946) can be understood not simply as the outcome of the trend of polymer research, but it is also closely associated with a broader ‘institutional shift’ within Poly aimed at supporting specialized and autonomous research under that era. (2)

Topic 3: Symposia as Structures of Scientific Communication (5,6)

*** Interactive Image Carousel Here for Symposia Flyers*** (5,6)

*** More Flyers***

By the late 1940s, regular polymer seminars were held routinely as a part of academic conduct at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Evidenced by archival records documenting an ongoing series of meetings as flyers. These symposiums are held on a biweekly basis, typically on Saturday morning at the original Poly campus on 99 Livingston Street, and follow a structured format. Sessions began at 10:00 AM and were chaired by a designated host, and continued until 3:00 PM. Each meeting featured multiple speakers, where five or six researchers working across different areas of polymer science, including synthesis, degradation, and biological applications, were presented and had discussions on their recent developments.

These symposia are essential proof of how the Polymer Research Institute conducts its academic and scientific operations. As regular meetings and seminars at PRI evolved into a prominent venue for polymer research within the United States, attracting forefront researchers, as well as industrial representatives from DuPont and Dow Chemical. During the mid-1900s, this was the place where most academic researches transit into its application.

Importantly, the influence of these symposia extended beyond the events themselves. Selected contributions were formalized through publications in leading journals such as the Journal of Polymer Science (started by Mark), which further demonstrates how these symposiums contribute to the institutional recognition of PRI. (18)

*** Tentative of finding an article from the journal to support this idea***

Knowledge Networking: The Expansion of Understanding Polymers

***Here should be a professional network of scientists who worked or are related to PRI ***

Herman Mark (1940 - 1964) – At POLY

Role: Founder of PRI; Director until 1961; Dean of Faculty (1961-1964); Professor of Chemistry

Research Focus: 

• X-ray diffraction of polymers
• Macromolecular Structure
• The crystallinity of polymers

Herbert Morawetz (1950s - 1980s) (3,4)

Role:  Professor of Chemistry; Senior PRI scholar

Research Focus:

• Behavior of soluble polymers (Dynamics)
• Thermodynamics of macromolecules
• Structure-property relationships of polymers

Turner Alfery (1940s - 1960s)

(10)

Role: Research Scientist / Faculty member at PRi

Research Focus:

• Polymerization kinetics
• Co-polymerization theory and its reaction mechanisms

Charles Overberger (1940s - 1950s)

Role: Faculty Researcher

Research Focus:

• Chemistry approach to polymer synthetics
• Investigate and design new polymer materials

Gerald Oster (1950s -1960s)

Role: Research Scientist

Research Focus:

• Polymer physics
• Photochemistry

*** There are other scientists who showed up in the PRI brochure or in Mark’s Collection. Here are their names***

Frederick R. Eirich (1950s - 1970s)

Role: Polymer chemist; Editor of the Journal of Polymer Science; AHCSR Co-chairman

Research Focus:

• Polymer colloids
• Rheology (Deformation of polymer materials under flow)
• Surface chemistry
• Polymer dispersions

Ervin Istavån Valko (11)

— Uncertain of his work in Poly

Rudolf Brill (Mid-20th century)

Role:  Physicsits; Crystallography researcher

Research Focus:

• X-ray crystallography
• Solid-state Structure

Robert Mesrobian (3)

*** This is a portrait of Mesrobian***

*** https://hdl.handle.net/2333.1/gqnk9h92***

Mary B. Cowman (Late 20th century) (3)

Role: Associate Professor of Biochemistry

Research Focus:

• Purification and Characterization of Complex Carbohydrate Biopolymers
• Intermolecular Interactions

Mark M. Green (1970s) (3)

Role: Professor of Chemistry

Research Focus:

• Stereochemical Effects in Macromolecules
• Chain Rigidity & Helical Structures

T.K. Kwei (1970s) (3)

Role: Research Professor in Chemistry

Research Focus:

• Polymer Blends
• Composite Material

Murray Goodman (1950s)

Role: Core faculty member at PRI (Second generation of leadership following Mark)

Research Focus:

•  Synthesis and properties of polypeptides
• Mechanism of α-amino acid polymerization

Transforming Education: Poly’s Lasting Impact on Polymer Science

Topic 1: Introducing Polymer Science into the Academic Curriculum  (8)

The introduction of polymer science into the academic curriculum has made a huge step here at Poly, as it is one of the first institutions that transforms this field into a formal area of study. As the understanding of macromolecules improved and with more in-depth knowledge of their formation and verification, elements of polymer science began to show as upper-level electives offered by the chemistry department. Evidence on the course catalogs in the 1960s shows that a series of polymer-related classes with a fine curriculum was held by research faculty and were heavily lab-based. (10) Such development indicates that while polymer research is developing within the institution, a broader shift into educational programs of polymers happens simultaneously, which offers a more accessible way for students with this distinct and fast-developing discipline.

Topic 2: Developing Graduate Training and Specialized Education (8)

Beyond its incorporation into the curriculum, polymer science at Poly was further consolidated through the development of structured graduate programs and specialized education. The program was organized around a clearly defined curriculum, including introductory Polymer Chemistry, Synthesis of High Polymers, Solution properties of High Polymers, and Macromolecules in the Solid State. Most of the topics covered are related to the research topics that the course instructor was conducting, allowing students to encounter the most cutting-edge focuses. In addition, laboratory-based training, such as Laboratory Methods in Polymer Chemistry and Polymer Processing Laboratory, emphasized hands-on experimental skills and is highly relevant to industrial requirements, which shows that Poly was preparing engineers in the relevant realm.

Topic 3: Recognizing Excellence: Awards in Polymer Research at Poly (7)

As polymer science became more firmly established within both academia and education at Poly, it was also increasingly recognized as a distinct field of study by the institutional boards. Thus, the creation of the award, Excellence in Polymer Science Award, was proof of the most important contribution of the year to this realm for students.

 https://hdl.handle.net/2333.1/gmsbcpvj 

Topic 4: Extending Influence through Professional Organizations (14)

The influence of polymer science at Poly extended beyond the institution through its connections with professional organizations, most notably, the establishment of the Polymer Division by Herman Mark in the American Chemical Society (ACS). (14)

*** A logo/representation of ACS Polymer Division ***

Topic 5: National Educational Impact (13)

Poly has contributed to current Polymer education in an unexpected way. The ACS polymer division is now the largest direct financial support to initiatives such as the Committee on Polymer Education (PolyEd) (13).

Through this funding, PolyEd is now propelling the development of polymer studies in K12 STEM studies, including polymer modeling, handcrafting, and sustainable recycling programs in younger age groups. This illustrates how polymer science was enabled to gain a wider educational presence across the United States.

Discussion & Question:

Building on the archival evidence, an important question regarding the institutional nature and long-term trajectory of the PRI persists. Despite the centrality of Poly’s polymer research platform, PRI does not consistently appear as an independent financial or administrative entity, regardless of the Dean’s financial report or Poly’s research development summary. Meanwhile, parallel research centers, such as MRI (Microwave Research Institute), are clearly documented in archival materials, listing their patents, revenue streams, and institutional expenditures.

The absence of these records suggests that PRI may not have functioned as a fully autonomous research institution in a conventional sense. Instead, evidence from faculty funding patterns indicates that individual research, specifically associate and industrial professors, secured support through external agencies such as the NIH or other foundations. And their fundings where administered at the level of labs under the chemistry department, rather than through PRI as an institutional body.

Those observations lead to a broader hypothesis: PRI may have operated less as a financial or administrative unit, but more as an organizational framework. Its primary function is to coordinate among research directions, the structuring of graduate education programs, and the facilitation of collaboration across the states. In this context, PRI functions as an ‘Institute within an Institute’, a conceptual and academic hub that unified polymer science sources without directly manipulating professor associates with it.

Appendix

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1KduWxEwM3FI7bD9ab7qlpHxEv8IkfKHiXHzZtOQOqSc/edit?usp=sharing 

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Citations

1. X-Ray Diffraction Lab, undated; Poly Archives Historic Photograph Collection; RG.026; Box 5; Folder 35; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
2. H. Mark PRI [Polymer Research Institute], undated; Herman F. Mark Collection; RG 002; Box 25; Object 12; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
3. Polymer Research Institute, 1955–1964; Ernst Weber Collection; RG.033; Box 10; Folder 13; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
4. Morawetz, Herbert. Polymers: The Origins and Growth of a Science, 1985; Herbert Morawetz Papers; RG.037; Carton 6; Items 1–2; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
5. Polymer Seminars, Volumes XI–XVII (1961–1968); Polytechnic and New York University Course Materials; RG.032; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
6. Polymer Symposia, 1986, 1992; Herman F. Mark Collection; RG.002; Box 13; Folder 42; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
7. Excellence in Polymer Science Award, undated; Poly Archives Historic Photograph Collection; RG.026; Box 5; Folder 37; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
8. Course Catalogs, Series VII; Lorcan Folan Papers; RG.044; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
9. Polymer Research, 1989–2010; Dean's Office Records; RG.051; Box 46, Folder 9; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
10. Alfry, Turner, undated; Poly Archives Portrait Collection; RG 028; Box 1; Folder 16; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
11. Vorgänge bei der mechanischen Verformung von Kautschuk [Process of the Mechanical Deformation of Rubber]. Mark and Valko, 1930, inclusive; Herman F. Mark Collection; RG 002; box number; folder number or item identifier; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
12. Mesrobian, Robert B., 1955, inclusive; Poly Archives Portrait Collection; RG 028; Box 5; Folder 11; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
13. Carraher, Charles E., Jr., Erik Berda, Frank D. Blum, John P. Droske, Warren T. Ford, Bob A. Howell, John M. Long, and Sarah E. Morgan. 2017. "History of Polymer Education in the United States through the Efforts of the Committee on Polymer Education and the Intersociety Polymer Education Council."  Journal of Chemical Education 94 (11):1607-1609. doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00614.
14. Metanomski, W. Val. 2001. POLY History 1946–2001. Washington, DC: ACS Division of Polymer Chemistry (POLY).
15. Society, American Chemical. 2003. Polymer Research Institute at NYU Poly: Historical Resource. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, National Historic Chemical Landmarks Program.
16. Flory, Paul J. Principles of Polymer Chemistry. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1953.
17. Mark, H., & Meyer, K. H. (1928). Der Aufbau der hochpolymeren organischen Naturstoffe. Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft.
18. Journal of Polymer Science. (n.d.). Brown University Library. Retrieved April 14, 2026, from https://bruknow.library.brown.edu/discovery/fulldisplay?vid=01BU_INST:BROWN&docid=alma991036083859706966&context=L