By: Asser El Ashwah

Prof. Anderberg

Advanced Seminar: Technology, Culture, and Society

Spring 2025

Herman Mark: War Hero, Scientist, and Architect of Biomedical Innovation

Introduction

Herman Mark’s journey from a war hero in Vienna to a pioneering scientist in Brooklyn encapsulates a legacy of resilience, innovation, and societal impact. His groundbreaking work in polymer science not only transformed materials science but also laid the foundation for modern biomedical engineering in many direct and indirect ways. Here we explore Mark’s formative years, his scientific contributions, his establishment of the Polymer Research Institute (PRI) at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now NYU Tandon), and his enduring influence on contemporary innovations, such as those by NYU Tandon alumnus Joe Landolina, and potentially by me Asser Elashwah. By weaving together the pieces of his life through three themes; War Hero, Scientist, and Architect of Biomedical Innovator.

Born in 1895 Mark’s passion for chemistry began in his youth, shaped by Vienna’s rich scientific and cultural atmosphere. At the turn of the 20th century, Vienna was a hub of intellectual energy, where figures like Sigmund Freud, Theodor Herzl, and Ludwig Boltzmann were reshaping fields as diverse as psychology, political science, and physics (1). Growing up in this environment, Mark was exposed to new ideas, rigorous education, and the importance of inquiry from a young age. All key factors in shaping his approach to learning and scientific development for years to come.

Coming from an intellectual family, where his father was a physician who deeply valued education, Mark was strongly encouraged to pursue his early interests. But it was his high school physics teacher, Dr. Franz Hlawati, who had an especially profound impact on him (1). Mark wrote in his autobiography From Small Organic Molecules to Large that Hlawati’s teaching made the abstract world of physics suddenly understandable and meaningful:

“Suddenly everything made sense,” he recalled. “Dr. Hlawati turned physics into purpose.” (1)

Figure 1 – Early Academic Influences on Hermann Mark:

Excerpts from Mark’s autobiographical sketches

Beyond the classroom, Mark’s curiosity led him to sneak into university seminars as a teenager (1). It was in these lecture halls that he witnessed some of the greatest scientific minds of the century such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Emil Fischer, and Ernest Rutherford discuss their groundbreaking work in chemistry and physics. These experiences had a lasting effect, lighting a fire within Mark that would fuel a lifelong pursuit of scientific discovery (1).

National Foundation for History of Chemistry. Herman Mark Oral History. American Chemical Society

By 1921, he had earned his Ph.D. in organic chemistry at the University of Vienna. Shortly after, he worked with Nobel laureate Fritz Haber in Berlin, and then moved to the prestigious Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, where he pioneered the use of x-ray diffraction in studying macromolecular structures such as cellulose and rubber (2). His early academic success positioned him at the cutting edge of a young but growing field: polymer chemistry.

Yet, before he could fully dedicate himself to science, world events intervened and he had to answer the call to serve in the army.

Wearing the Soldier’s Uniform Before the Lab Coat

Before embarking on his scientific journey, Mark joined the Austrian Army in 1913. He fought in World War I, was wounded three times, and became a prisoner of war in Italy. Between 1918 and 1919, he remained imprisoned, but even in captivity, Mark studied languages and chemistry (2).

Between 1918 and 1919, Mark remained imprisoned in an old convent-turned-prison camp in southern Italy. But even in captivity, he refused to let hardship define him. Instead, he studied languages, learning Italian, French, and English and continued reading about chemistry whenever possible (3). His time as a prisoner honed both his resilience and his intellect, qualities that would serve him throughout his life.

In his successful escape, Mark disguised himself in a British soldier’s uniform and bribed an Italian officer during a prisoner transfer. He managed to board a train and traveled all the way back to Vienna, risking everything to reunite with his sick father (2). Mark's bravery and resourcefulness were recognized, and he was honored as the most decorated company-grade officer in the Austrian Army by the war’s end (2).

In 1938, with the Nazis tightening their grip on Austria and Jewish persecution escalating, Mark once again faced danger not on a battlefield, but as a scientist with Jewish heritage (2). Like many European intellectuals, he recognized the region’s instability and began planning his departure (2).

The Looming Threat

Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Mark established himself as a leader in structural chemistry and polymer research. He expanded his work on macromolecules at IG Farben, one of Germany’s most important industrial research firms (2). There, he helped apply x-ray crystallography to unravel the structures of polymers, a revolutionary achievement for the time.

MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. (1953). James D. Watson and Francis Crick with their DNA model. 

Again portraying his familiarity with advanced imaging techniques a the time that were later used in 1953, by scientists James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick having determined the double-helix structure of DNA, the molecule containing human genes (4).  

However, even as Mark’s scientific reputation grew, political tensions escalated across Europe. The Nazi Party’s rise to power in Germany, followed by the annexation of Austria (the Anschluss) in 1938, placed Jewish scientists like Mark directly in danger. Mark fled with his family, using a Nazi-flagged car and smuggling platinum wire bent into coat hangers to preserve some of their wealth. He eventually made his way to Canada, where he took a position at the Canadian International Paper Company (2). For Mark, science offered a way to rebuild and create, rather than destroy this is a theme that would echo throughout his career, and throughout the innovations that he pioneered in material science and its rippling effects on the United States, New York City and polytech.

The annexation of Austria into the German Reich 1938

Polymers and Pulp: Canada as a starting point

After reaching Switzerland, Mark secured visas to travel to England and then to Canada (1). By the fall of 1938, he had arrived in Ontario, where he began working for the Canadian International Paper Company. Though far from the academic circles of Vienna and Berlin, Mark adapted quickly.

Figure 4: Canadian Immigration cards (4)

At the paper company, Mark worked in a pulp and paper lab where he made critical discoveries about cellulose, a natural polymer (1). His structural insights laid the foundation for what we now call biomaterials specifically polysaccharide biochemistry. Today, cellulose derivatives are used in everything from wound dressings and sutures to scaffolds for tissue engineering.

In Virgil Percec paper he highlights this moment as pivotal as it bridged Mark’s early structural work to modern applied research techniques (4). His ability to unify industrial practice with academic rigor made him a rare and valuable scientist (4). Mark’s move from academic chemistry in Europe to applied polymer research in North America wasn’t just a career shift it was a formative leap for polymer science, especially in its future role in biological systems that build on much of his initial work.

Excerpts from Mark’s autobiographical sketches

Hello, America: Building the Polymer Research Institute

In 1940, Mark was appointed Adjunct Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now NYU Tandon), where he founded the Polymer Research Institute (PRI) (1). This was the first academic center in the U.S. solely dedicated to polymer science. Here, he brought his European research model from ​ the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute and IG Farben, he introduced a three-part model: of synthesis, characterization, and application and adapted it for an American audience (1).

He recruited former colleagues, trained a generation of polymer scientists, and turned PRI into a national hub for macromolecular research. The founding of the PRI was revolutionary. At the time, polymer science was not widely recognized as a legitimate academic discipline. Theoretical chemists often dismissed polymers as "messy" substances, unworthy of serious study. But Mark saw the future. He recognized that polymers both natural and synthetic would reshape industries ranging from packaging and textiles to medicine and aerospace (12). His work helped elevate Brooklyn, and New York City more broadly, into a major center for polymer innovation which eventually extended into much of the biomedical applications and biomedical engineering department we have today at Tandon as interest in health-related materials grew after World War II, especially as the depart for military-grade polymers shifted and people began comercializing technologies for all new fields.

Figure 5: American passport of Herman Mark (5)

The Birth of Polymer Science: Mark's Early Discoveries

Reflecting on the early days of polymer research, Herman Mark recalled how the scientific understanding of materials like cellulose, rubber, silk, and wool was initially fragmented (7). Each material was treated as if it belonged to an entirely different scientific world like "Venus and Mars before Copernicus," as Mark memorably described. There was no unified theory connecting them, no realization that these materials shared a deeper molecular similarity (7).

In the early 1920s, Mark, along with colleagues like Rudy Brill, began pioneering the use of x-ray diffraction, a revolutionary method at the time, to study the internal structures of these materials. Working with makeshift x-ray tubes they built themselves, Mark and Brill produced some of the first x-ray diagrams of stretched rubber and cellulose. These early experiments laid the foundation for understanding solid-state physics in organic compounds, introducing techniques like infrared absorption and electron diffraction into the study of biological and polymeric materials (8).

Figure 3 – Über den Bau der kristallinen Anteile der Cellulose” (English: On the Structure of the Crystalline Components of Cellulose).

Figure 3 in Herman Mark’s landmark paper “Über den Bau der kristallinen Anteile der Cellulose” (1926) represents one of the earliest structural models of cellulose's crystalline regions based on X-ray diffraction (6). This figure visually encapsulates a pivotal moment in scientific history when X-ray crystallography began to illuminate the internal arrangements of macromolecules. Mark employed Bragg’s law and precise angular measurements to propose a repeating unit structure for cellulose “its monomer unit” that reflected its linear, ordered configuration something that was unprecedented insight at the time.

Chemical Polymeric Structure of Cellulose

It was only with the publication of Hermann Staudinger’s and Karl Freudenberg’s pioneering papers that the concept of long-chain macromolecules, what we now call polymers came into focus. Suddenly, it became clear: rubber, cellulose, silk, and wool were not different kinds of matter, but different expressions of the same fundamental principle that is long chains of repeating units (monomers) bonded together (6).

Mark often illustrated this discovery with a simple but powerful analogy. He compared a single sugar molecule to a paperclip: small, brittle, and water-soluble. But when thousands of these "paperclips" are linked together, they form a strong, flexible chain, the molecular architecture of cellulose (12). This visual analogy captured the essence of polymerization: the chemical process by which small molecular units are bonded into large, functional macromolecules.

The term "polymer" itself, derived from the Greek words poly (many) and mer (parts), symbolized a radical shift in scientific thinking. No longer were scientists confined to studying isolated small molecules; now, they could explore the dynamic properties of massive, chain-like structures that would come to define plastics, textiles, adhesives, and eventually, biomedical materials.

Mark’s early realization that functional groups (hydroxyl, amino, hydrocarbon) behave similarly whether attached to small molecules or giant chains was transformative (13). It laid the chemical groundwork that would later enable the engineered design of biomaterials and medical implants, from hydrogels for wound healing to life-saving products also engineered here at Poly.

Protein Folding Article – Nature Reprint (1951) & Newspaper Clipping – “He Left His Mark (1985)”

Continuing the work initiated by Mark’s early crystallographic studies, the evolving field of macromolecular science soon extended into the biological realm, particularly through the investigation of protein structure. A 1951 article in Nature by K. H. Meyer and H. Bloden, titled “Biological Significance of Folding and Unfolding of Protein Molecules,” (13) built upon the foundational insights of polymer organization by highlighting how protein chains undergo structural transitions under varying chemical conditions. Their work visually and theoretically demonstrated how folding patterns, much like those observed in cellulose crystallinity, were dictated by electrostatic forces and pH changes, echoing Mark’s emphasis on physical structure as a key to functional understanding (10). This shift toward biomolecular systems underscored the interdisciplinary vision of the Polymer Research Institute that Mark established at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. His mission wasn’t just to investigate synthetic plastics but to position polymers both natural and artificial as a unified scientific category. The 1951 Nature reprint, alongside popular recognitions like the Daily News article “He Left His Mark,” (14) affirmed the growing cultural and academic consensus: Mark had not only helped pioneer polymer science but had catalyzed a broader molecular revolution spanning materials, biology, and medicine (16).

Video Excerpt of Herman Mark Explaining Basic Chemical Interactions in Polymers

Wartime Innovation and Industrial Contributions

As World War II continued in Europe and had reverberations in the United States, it became clear that this was not just a military battle, it was a battle of materials, engineering, and scientific know-how and execution. As nations mobilized their scientific communities, Herman Mark stood at the crossroads of chemistry and national security. Drawing from his deep knowledge of macromolecular structures, Mark became a critical player in the American scientific response to wartime shortages, most notably with shellac substitutes and synthetic rubber production (1). But beyond addressing immediate war needs, the period also catalyzed shifts in Mark's research that ultimately laid the groundwork for postwar biomedical innovation, from hydrogels to wound healing materials, to the foundations of what would become tissue engineering (17).

Figure 6: Timeline biographical overview of Herman Mark

Figure 7 – Early Symposia in Polymer Chemistry and Potential Medical Applications (15)

Shellac: A Crisis in Materials Science During WWII

Natural shellac flakes, a resin secreted by the lac bug (Kerria lacca) and traditionally used as a wood finish, sealant, and insulating material.

Before the war, the United States relied heavily on imported shellac, a natural resin secreted by the lac bug, primarily sourced from forests in India and Southeast Asia. Shellac was indispensable for a variety of industries:

• Electrical insulation
• Optical coatings for lenses and instruments
• Dental molds and fillings
• Lacquers for phonograph records

However, Japan’s occupation of Southeast Asia during WWII effectively cut off access to shellac supplies, triggering an urgent crisis in American manufacturing. Without alternatives, vital industries including telecommunications, defense optics, and medical device manufacturing faced catastrophic disruption (21).

During World War II, Mark lent his expertise to several critical wartime projects. He directed the Shellac Bureau in Brooklyn, leading efforts to find synthetic substitutes for imported shellac used in optics, dentistry, and phonograph records (2). He also worked on the development of synthetic rubber, essential for the war effort when access to natural rubber was cut off (2).

Because of his earlier work at I.G. Farben and his deep knowledge of polymer chemistry, Mark played a strategic role in helping the American industry meet wartime demands. Drawing on his earlier experience at IG Farben where he had worked on synthetic rubber known as Buna. Mark advised on the large-scale development of domestic rubber alternatives.

From Industrial Chemistry to Biomedical Foundations

Although polymer chemistry was once considered peripheral or solely industrial, Mark’s research laid the foundational chemical principles that enabled biomedical innovators to harness natural plant-based polymers and develop new materials for use in medical implants such as artificial bone (23). His studies on polymer flexibility, molecular weight, and mechanical properties were precursors to biomedical breakthroughs in:

• Hydrogels
• Antibacterial coatings
• Hemostatic agents
• Synthetic skin
• Biodegradable scaffolds for tissue engineering

Biomaterials Science, a journal published by the Royal Society of Chemistry in partnership with the European Society for Biomaterials.

By investigating how natural and synthetic polymers behaved under different conditions, Mark helped unlock new possibilities for biomedical engineering decades before the field formally existed.  

The Foundation for Hydrogels and Biodegradable Polymers

One of the most profound legacies of Mark’s wartime research was the early exploration of hydrophilic polymers which are materials that absorb and retain water. These materials would later be engineered into hydrogels, which became crucial for:

• Healing severe burns
• Sustaining moist environments for wound recovery
• Delivering drugs locally to tissue

Mark’s emphasis on the systematic study of polymer-water interactions paved the way for later breakthroughs in biomaterials that could effectively interface with living tissues (18).

From Macromolecules to Modern Medicine: How Herman Mark’s Legacy Lives on at NYU Tandon through Students

The scientific spirit that Herman Mark cultivated when he founded the Polymer Research Institute at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in 1942 continues to ripple through NYU Tandon’s halls today. Mark’s pioneering work in polymer chemistry particularly his deep study of natural sugar-based polymers like cellulose not only laid the foundations for modern materials science but also helped seed the biomedical innovations here in poly transforming healthcare today.

One striking example of his legacy here in Brooklyn is Joe Landolina, an NYU Tandon alumnus who, during his time as an undergrad studying chemical and biomolecular engineering, invented a revolutionary wound-sealing material now commercialized under his company Cresilon (18).

When Landolina arrived at NYU Polytechnic School of Engineering (now NYU Tandon), he carried with him a unique vision: to create a material that could instantly stop traumatic bleeding (19).

As a freshman in 2010, he developed a prototype hydrogel capable of rapidly forming a mechanical seal over a wound site without relying on clotting factors or traditional bandages. This early version of VetiGel, later commercialized by Cresilon, was built almost entirely from plant-derived polymers echoing again the very same principles Herman Mark championed nearly a century earlier in his research on cellulose and other natural macromolecules (20).

Landolina’s innovation represented how these sugar-based polymers only two derived from algae and chitosan the exoskeleton of shellfish would create a gel physically integrated with surrounding tissue within seconds. One that formed an immediate mechanical barrier to blood loss, crucial in trauma care. It was biocompatible, biodegradable, and scalable.

Looking beyond just scientific development, NYU’s long history in central endeavors and translational science primed Joe for early success in bringing engineered solutions into the medical field something that was recently introduced to both NYU and Poly as biomedical engineering was not categorized or emphasized prior.

From battlefields to emergency veterinary medicine, the applications for VetiGel were immense. Cresilon’s technology has since been adapted for human trauma applications and military field use, a modern continuation of wartime polymer innovation serving humanitarian needs, just as Mark’s materials once had during World War II.

The Science Behind the Breakthrough: Rooted in Mark's Legacy

What makes Cresilon’s material so extraordinary is not just its lifesaving function, but how deeply its science is tied to Herman Mark’s foundational insights. Mark’s pioneering work in the 1920s and 1930s centered around understanding how natural polymers like cellulose could be structured, modified, and stabilized. He was among the first to reveal through X-ray crystallography that these long-chain molecules exhibited predictable mechanical properties like elasticity, tensile strength, and water absorption. All of the properties that are used by Cresilons Trauma-GEL.

Without Mark’s original studies of molecular networks, chain entanglements, and natural polymer behavior, the conceptual basis for Cresilon’s breakthrough technology would simply not exist. Not only that, but the polymer research institute and the ripples it had on polymer chemistry at Tandon fueled the learning and enjoinment needed for Joe and his early founding team to be able to develop this technology.

Polytechnic to Tandon: A Tradition of Entrepreneurial Science

Landolina’s story and much research here at Tandon reflect a broader cultural legacy that NYU Tandon inherited from the Polytechnic Institute: the marriage of deep scientific rigor with real-world application.

Since its founding, Poly has emphasized that science should serve society. Mark’s Polymer Research Institute was never content with theoretical discoveries alone; it sought to create new industries, new materials, and new solutions to global problems. Students were trained not only to understand chemistry but to think as inventors, entrepreneurs, and builders. Another theme we see within the Brooklyn landscape, especially the industrial neighborhood around which Poly was built.

InnoVention Student Idea Competition: Behind the Scenes

This spirit remains deeply embedded in NYU Tandon’s mission today, through programs like InnoVention and Tandon Future Labs, students are encouraged to commercialize research discoveries. Cresilon’s rise from a dorm-room prototype to a multi-million-dollar biotech company is a shining example of what Polytechnic envisioned and what NYU Tandon proudly continues to support.

The Modern Battlefield: Wartime Innovation

In many ways, Cresilon’s journey mirrors Mark’s wartime efforts. During World War II, Mark helped the Allied forces by developing synthetic alternatives to shellac and rubber materials that were crucial for wartime communications, transportation, and healthcare.

Today, Cresilon’s hemostatic gel is designed for combat medics to use in field conditions where rapid bleeding control can mean the difference between life and death. Whether on a battlefield or in an ambulance the hydrogel’s ability to instantly seal traumatic wounds without external clotting agents represents a 21st-century echo of the same wartime urgency that drove Mark’s generation of material scientists. Again this plays into a higher theme of how urgency and defense-based material science technologies during tensioned times continue to force and squeeze innovation from the highest level of academic institutions again reinforcing the need for continued funding for research and development in engineering and medicine.

References:

1. “Biographical - Sketches,” 1985-2005, inclusive; Herbert Morawetz Collection; RG 037; Box 1, Folder 1; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
2. Biography (through retirement),” undated; Herman F. Mark Collection; RG 002; Box 1, Folder 5; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
3. Herman Mark Oral History Volume
    National Foundation for History of Chemistry. Herman Mark Oral History. American Chemical Society, undated.
4. Science History Institute. (n.d.). James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin. Science History Institute. https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/james-watson-francis-crick-maurice-wilkins-and-rosalind-franklin/

5. Percec, V. (2023). Herman F. Mark: Pioneer in structural chemistry, molecular biology, and polymer science. Chem, 9(12), 3386–3393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chempr.2023.10.021
6. Mark, H. F. (1928). Über den Bau der kristallinen Anteile der Cellulose. Herman F. Mark Collection, RG 002, Box 1, Folder 5, Poly Archives, Bern Dibner Library, NYU Libraries, Brooklyn.
7. Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. (n.d.). Dr. Herman F. Mark on the origins of polymer science [Video]. Google Drive. https://drive.google.com/file/d/12AoQ_tjcVdIQKnoBNCf8Ivv6kSBBNPP5/view
8. Canadian Immigration Cards,” 1938; Herman F. Mark Collection; RG 002; Box 1, Folder 17; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
9. Herman Mark American  passports,” 1953; Herman F. Mark Collection; RG 002; Box 1, Folder 14; Poly Archives at Bern Dibner Library of Science and Technology, New York University.
10. Feichtinger, J. (2006). Herman F. Mark (1895–1992): Viennese Born ‘Ambassador’ of Macromolecular Research. 6th International Conference on the History of Chemistry, Austrian Academy of Sciences. https://www.euchems.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/26-Feichtinger_.pdf
11. American Chemical Society. (2003). Polymer Research Institute at NYU Polytechnic: Historical Resource. National Historic Chemical Landmark. Retrieved from the Poly Archives.
12. Mark, H. F. (n.d.). Early reflections on the origins of polymer science [Video]. Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn Archives. Retrieved April 27, 2025, from https://drive.google.com/file/d/12AoQ_tjcVdIQKnoBNCf8Ivv6kSBBNPP5/view
13. Protein Folding Article – Nature Reprint (1951)
     Meyer, K. H., and H. Bloden. “Biological Significance of Folding and Unfolding of Protein Molecules.” Nature, vol. 167, p. 756, May 5, 1951.
14. Newspaper Clipping – “He Left His Mark” (1985)
     Daily News (New York). “He Left His Mark.” Feature article on Herman Mark and his scientific legacy. Date unknown. Clipping from scrapbook collection.
15. Wood Chemistry Symposium Program (1949)
     Institute of Polymer Research, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. “Symposium on Wood Chemistry.” May 7, 1949. Program booklet.
16. Press Release – Polytechnic Commencement (1965)
     Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. “Commencement Press Release.” June 9, 1965. Featuring Prof. Herman F. Mark's final address and retirement.
    
17. Typescript – “Polymers in the Year 2000 and Beyond”
     Mark, Herman. “Polymers in the Year 2000 and Beyond.” Forecast report, undated typescript. Likely 1970s–1980s.
18. NYU Tandon School of Engineering. (n.d.). Materials. NYU Tandon: 170 Years of Engineering Innovation. https://engineering.nyu.edu/170-years-of-engineering/materials
19. NYU Alumni Association. (2025). Joseph Landolina – 2025 NYU Alumni Award Honoree. New York University. https://alumni.nyu.edu/alumni/nyuaa-awards/honoree/joseph-landolina.php
20. NYU Tandon School of Engineering. (2024, April 19). InnoVention: A student idea competition, behind the scenes. https://engineering.nyu.edu/news/innovention-student-idea-competition-behind-scenes
21. Landolina, J., & Herbruck, D. (2017). Hemostatic and wound-healing compositions and methods of making and using same (U.S. Patent No. 9,687,584 B1). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US9687584B1/en
22. National Park Service. (n.d.). Material drives on: The World War II home front. U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/material-drives-on-the-world-war-ii-home-front.htm
23. NYU Tandon School of Engineering. (n.d.). Materials. 170 Years of Innovation. https://engineering.nyu.edu/170-years-of-engineering/materials