Note: Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations; those with a t indicate tables.
activism, 34–38, 41, 121–22, 172, 209
adivasis (indigenous people), 49
agency, political, 94–95, 108, 118, 151, 178, 181–208, 211
aggi barhnu (move forward), 136
Akhil Bharatiya Gorkha League (ABGL), 51, 98, 223n15
alcoholism, 44, 54, 143, 162, 164, 166, 177, 212
ānganwādi. See Integrative Child Development Services
anthropology, 30–34; feminist, 36–37, 121–22, 140, 154, 209; methodologies of, 30–34, 38–41
awareness programs, Fair Trade, 135, 176, 195–202, 198
Banerjee, Rajah, 63
basti (village) areas, 10, 45, 47, 49, 57, 185–86; classification of tea from, 59; Fair Trade in, 74–76, 77. See also small-holder women tea farmers
Basu, Amrita, 225n1
bāthi (street smart), 56, 141, 143, 173, 175, 193
bato dikhaunu (showing the way), 136
Bengali views of Nepalis, 31, 33, 35, 44, 53
Bhowmick, Sharit, 222n3
biopolitics, 85, 128; affective, 103; ethical, 22, 82–84; Fair Trade and, 83–84; transnational, 82–84
bonuses, 48, 51, 81, 111, 114, 217, 227n14. See also wages
Brown, Keith, 26
Center of Indian Trade Unions (CITU), 79. See also unions
Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 226n11
chamchas (planters’ henchmen), 32, 48, 107
Chaprāsis (field supervisor), 48–49, 186
Chatterjee, Partha, 156
Chatterjee, Piya, 37, 145, 222n3; on multiple patriarchies, 6, 49, 109; on plantation workers, 143
Chávez, César, 212
chuchchi (street smart women), 56, 155, 161–62, 175
collective bargaining, 32, 86, 89, 98, 102, 110, 122–24. See also unions; wages
Communist Party of India Marxist (CPIM), 51, 54, 79; GNLF and, 111–16, 223n15; madeshis and, 111–16; Women’s Wing of, 113, 115, 120–21
Congress Party of India, 51, 79, 223n15
“coolies,” 120, 132–33, 227n15
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), 4, 85, 210–11, 229n1
Cruz-Torres, Maria, 18
dairy cooperatives, 68, 69, 130, 134, 168, 172–75, 227n6
Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC), 47; decentralization of, 55–56; economic development by, 226n9; formation of, 54, 55, 113; Gorkhaland movement and, 222n5; plantations of, 59
Darjeeling Planters’ Association (DPA), 31, 224n3; on “illegal” tea farmers, 57, 64–65, 142, 149
Darjeeling tea, 58–67; annual yield of, 58, 60; flavor of, 58, 60, 65; “illegal” producers of, 57, 61–67, 142, 149, 213; price of, 59, 60
Darjeeling Tea Association (DTA), 1, 31, 224nn2–3
Darjeeling Tea Garden Workers’ Union, 51
Dashai festival, 169, 227n14. See also Hinduism
de Certeau, Michel, 13
“deterritorialization” (Colins), 122–23
development. See economic development
DGHC. See Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council
Dolan, C. S., 26
DPA. See Darjeeling Planters’ Association
drug use, 162, 163. See also alcoholism
DTA. See Darjeeling Tea Association
East India Company, 222n5
economic development, 81–82, 137–38, 171, 226n9; Amartya Sen on, 19; yojanas for, 132, 136, 143, 149, 195, 209, 213
Elkington, Jon, 8
empowerment of women, 19–21, 49, 127, 150–52; CSR programs for, 4, 85, 210–11, 229n1; Gorkhaland Movement and, 48, 106–7, 222n5; Kristoff on, 211–13; skepticism about, 129, 218–19; terms of, 136
entrepreneurialism, 5, 75, 106, 128, 136, 148, 172; Ghumāuri and, 106; risk-taking in, 154, 172–78; social reproduction and, 12–14, 154–55, 210, 219; terms of, 136. See also housewife entrepreneurs
European Fair Trade Association, 75
European Union organic standards, 70
Fair Trade, 9–12, 74–79; benefits of, 3, 84, 97, 103, 134, 140, 189–91, 213; “clean trade” and, 202–7, 204; contesting of, 127–29, 133–41, 134, 135, 217–20; as “economics of semiology,” 26; free trade versus, 128; gendered meanings of, 12–17, 25–26, 110; political implications of, 63; premium prices for, 7, 60, 80; privatized political fields and, 98–102; training programs of, 23–24; “transparent,” 5; World Bank and, 16–17
Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International (FLO), 3–4, 34, 71, 80, 185–86, 221n2; awareness programs of, 135, 176, 195–202, 198; flowchart of, 76; government registration and, 195, 198; Hired Labor Organizations and, 17, 58; smallholder tea production and, 131; training programs of, 80; unions and, 100; voluntourists and, 88; worker complaints and, 99, 175
Fernandes, Leela, 178, 213, 225n1
fertilizers, 7, 60, 66–68, 224n6
forestry, sustainable, 19
Foucault, Michel, 82, 182, 219
Fraser, Nancy, 46, 47, 154, 155, 222nn4–5
Gandhi, Indira, 49
Gandhi, Mohandas, 8
gender equality, 36, 48–49, 156–57; ecofeminism and, 19, 213, 216–17; Fair Trade and, 4–5, 12–17, 24–26, 106, 110; household politics and, 172–78; politics of, 46–50, 210–11; social distinctions and, 56; sustainability and, 4–5, 16–19, 216–17; visibility of women’s work and, 157–58, 176, 178–79, 206–7; World Bank Action Plan for, 17
gendered labor politics, 121–25, 135–41; of ghumāuri, 12, 15–16, 108–10, 183–92; work-household relations and, 157–64
gendered projects of value, 12–16, 18, 22–23, 125, 210, 213–18
gendered spatial politics, 141–46
Geographical Indications (GI), 59–60, 66, 74–75
Gezon, Liza, 19
Ghising, Subhash, 56, 110–11, 226nn9–10
Ghumāuri (mutual aid groups), 3, 5, 105–6, 118–25; as clandestine space, 16, 27, 119–20; as cultural resource, 21; etymology of, 227n12; gendered labor politics of, 12, 15–16, 108–10, 183–92, 216; SKS Women’s Wing and, 28, 74; union similarities to, 106–9, 114, 117–18; Women’s Wing meetings versus, 188, 191–202
globalization, 19, 82, 118. See also neoliberalism
Gorkha Janamukti Morcha (GJM), 49, 222n5, 225n3; criticisms of, 225n5; formation of, 56, 226n10; GNLF and, 225n3, 226n10; Women’s Wing of, 28, 35
Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF), 47, 49, 52, 223n9; aims of, 54–55, 111–13, 222n5; CPIM and, 54, 111–16, 223n15; criticisms of, 100, 114–16, 121; general strike of 2007 by, 174; GJM and, 225n3, 226n10; membership of, 54, 55; unions and, 54, 55, 79, 113, 223n15
Gorkhaland Movement, 45, 53–54, 111; first (1986–88), 54–56, 222n5; second (since 2007), 55, 79, 102, 114, 222n5, 224n17; women’s empowerment and, 48, 106–7, 222n5
Gorkhastan, 51
green technologies, 2, 7, 65–68, 88, 224n6
Gurkha Regiment, 50
Gurkhas, 30–31. See also Nepalis in India
Gururani, Shubhra, 19
Hāthe chiā (hand-rolled tea), 8, 58, 65, 149, 209
Hinduism, 192; Dashai festival of, 169, 227n14; dietary restrictions of, 33–34; Nepalis and, 34, 156, 226n9, 227n14
Hired Labor Organizations (HLOs), 7, 17, 58
“home work,” 39, 156; Kamalā on, 26–27; Visweswaran on, 36, 38
household conflicts, 21, 154–55, 158–78
housewife entrepreneurs, 45, 144, 152, 156, 158, 217; landholding, 49, 133. See also entrepreneurialism
identity politics, 45–54, 222n4; entrepreneurialism and, 128; ethnicity and, 48–54, 115; Fraser on, 46, 47, 222nn4–5; gender equality and, 46–50; Middleton on, 100; subnationalism and, 50, 222n5
Igoe, Jim, 88
“illegal” tea producers, 57, 61–67, 142, 149
Indian Idol (talent show), 52
Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), 79
Indian Plantation Labor Act (1951), 101
Indo Nepal Friendship Treaty, 111, 113
Institute of Market Ecology (IMO), 65, 70
Integrative Child Development Services (ICDS), 47, 166, 227n5
Iversen, V., 179
jaivik kheti bāri. See organic agriculture
Janajāgaran Kāryakrum (People’s Awareness Campaign), 176, 195–202
Joint Bodies (worker-management associations), 27, 79–80, 91; criticisms of, 99–103, 107, 114, 191; labor negotiations through, 89; unions versus, 93, 95, 97–98; voluntourists at, 93–96
jugaad economy, 11
justice. See transnational justice regimes
Kabeer, N., 178
Kāmdhāri (group leader), 113, 114
Kenya, 60
Kisān Sabhā (farmers’ union), 68–71, 69t
Koehler, Jeff, 9, 62, 63, 77–79
Lakshmi (Hindu deity), 192
Lazreg, Marina, 211
Lepcha Development Board, 222n5
Lyon, Sarah, 83
madeshis (plains people), 33, 49, 53, 77; politics of, 111–12; work opportunities for, 163
Mahilā Pratinidhi, 74
Mahilā Samity (Women’s Organization), 113, 115, 120–21
Makhmali (self-help group), 209–10
Malaysia, 123
maquiladoras in Mexico, 122, 123
March, Katherine, 105
māyá (love/care/compassion), 206–7
McElwee, Pamela, 18
microcredit programs, 73, 106, 128, 130, 142, 166; in Bangladesh, 154; establishment of, 177; social reproduction and, 219
middlemen for small-holder farmers, 137, 141–46, 169, 172–75
Middleton, Townsend, 100
Miews, M., 21
Moberg, Mark, 83
Mutersbaugh, Tad, 141
National Organic Program (USA), 70
nationalism. See subnationalism
Naturland standards, 70
neoliberalism, 5, 19, 82, 118, 133; alternatives to, 20, 25, 210, 218–19; empowerment and, 152; Fair Trade and, 15; governmentalities of, 15, 90; unions and, 123–24
Nepalis in India, 43–56; Bengali views of, 31, 33, 35, 44, 53; Hinduism and, 34, 156, 226n9, 227n14; military service by, 50, 113, 146; nicknames for, 52; sociocultural differences among, 56; stereotypes of, 44–46, 52–53, 100–101, 143–44; struggles of, 50–56; “tribal” status of, 31–33, 50–53, 111, 226n9; voting rights of, 111
nepotism, 28, 101, 106, 123, 163, 182, 191, 225n4
nongovernment organizations (NGOs), 4, 69, 215; CSR campaigns and, 210–11; privatized justice of, 98; on risk-taking, 177; sakaunu and, 219; self-help groups and, 137–38; smallholder tea production and, 131–32; “techno-ethical regimes” of, 140; training camps of, 167; unions and, 85
Ong, Aihwa, 22, 118, 122, 140–41
“Oppression Olympics,” 212, 222n5
organic agriculture, 153, 227n1; benefits of, 67–68; Internal Control tests for, 74
organic certification, 3–7, 221n2; standards for, 65, 70, 221n2; voluntourism and, 88
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 211
pāhāDis (people of the hills), 33; characteristics of, 112, 223n11; definition of, 223n7; identity politics of, 48–50, 53–54
panchāyat (local government body), 3, 21, 177, 209
partybazi (working for local political party), 48, 49, 55, 223n9
patriarchies, 22–23, 27, 47, 212; of cooperatives, 131–32, 137–38, 197–202; multiple, 6, 49, 109; questioning of, 13, 15
pesticides, 60, 65–66, 192, 224n6
Phulbāri plantation, 35; Joint Body of, 101; voluntourists at, 93
Pilgeram, R., 17
Plantation Labor Act (1951), 51, 79, 81, 117
plantations. See tea plantations
polio, 166
politics of redistribution, 123–24
privatized justice, 98
purdha (veiling), 136
Rai, Chitra, 35
raksi (alcoholic drink), 44, 106, 138, 158, 164, 170
Raman, K. Ravi, 222n3
Ravi Raman, K., 58
recognition, politics of. See identity politics
redistribution, politics of, 123–24
sakaune kaam (housework), 177–78
Samanta, Amiya K., 111
Sānu Krishak Sansthā (SKS), 57, 66–74, 128–52, 213, 223n6; annual meeting of, 206–7, 207; gendered boundaries in, 146–50, 220; government registration of, 195, 198; household conflicts at, 168–78; household relations at, 164–68; inspections of, 133–36, 134, 135, 141, 148; photographs of, 64, 67, 72; voluntourists at, 86, 91, 102; Women’s Wing of, 71–74, 130, 134–52, 164–77, 182–208. See also Small Producer Organizations
Sanyal, Kalyan, 12
Self Help Groups (SHGs), 73, 106, 137–38
Sen, Amartya, 19
Sharma, Jayeeta, 143
Small Producer Organizations (SPOs), 10, 27, 131–52, 221n1; certification of, 76, 133–41, 134; cooperatives of, 65, 136–37, 222n6; development funds for, 81–82, 137–38, 171; history of, 64–66. See also Sānu Krishak Sansthā
small-holder women tea farmers, 47, 56, 74–77, 127–52, 156, 219; household relations of, 164–68; middlemen for, 137, 141–46, 169, 172–75; organic agriculture by, 67–68; patriarchal controls of, 190–91, 217; risk-taking by, 154, 172–78; shadow economy of, 62, 65. See also basti areas
social reproduction, 24, 47, 50, 130, 146; entrepreneurialism and, 12–14, 154–55, 219; Fair Trade and, 152; Freeman on, 14; Sexsmith on, 215–16
Sonākheti plantation, 53, 53, 79, 85, 184; child labor at, 113; Fair Trade at, 74, 81; Joint Body of, 98–101, 114; union history at, 100, 116–17; voluntourists at, 93
Spivak, Gayatri Chakraborty, 24, 129, 210
SPOs. See Small Producer Organizations
Sri Lanka, 60
Starbucks Corporation, 76
subnationalism, 27; ethnicity and, 48, 51–53, 110–13; identity politics of, 50, 222n5
survival narratives, 18, 27, 106–8, 209
sustainability: gender equality and, 4–5, 16–19, 216–17; interstitial, 48, 105–8, 117–18; market-based, 86; tourism and, 85; UN Commission on, 216; World Bank paradigm of, 16–17
Sustainable Development (journal), 18
swachcha vyāpār (doing fair business), 128–37 passim, 146, 149–53, 169, 176, 220. See also Fair Trade
Swiss organic standards, 70
Taylor, Charles, 222n4
Tazo Tea Company, 61
Tea Board of India, 59, 60, 63, 113; training events of, 66, 67
tea plantations, 58–63; criticisms of, 87, 112–13, 183, 216–17; daily routines on, 1–3, 91–92, 163, 188–89, 203; as Hired Labor Organizations, 58; household relations at, 157–64; labor politics of, 110–25, 163–64; land reforms of, 8, 47, 68–69, 148; monoculture of, 10, 59, 67; seasonal workers of, 228n3; sorting department of, 205; work hierarchy on, 48–49, 77, 78, 91, 162
“techno-ethical regimes,” 140
Ten Year Framework of Programs for Sustainable Consumption and Production, 216
thikā (wage work), 3, 107, 164, 187–90, 204–8, 216
THulo yojanā (big business), 132, 136, 143, 149, 195, 209, 213
transnational justice regimes, 128, 140–41, 213; gendered translations of, 5, 22–24; privatized justice and, 98
Trinamool Congress, 79
UN Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), 216
UN Conference on Women (Beijing), 16
unions, 32, 79–82, 105–25, 157, 212; collective bargaining by, 32, 86, 89, 98, 102, 110, 122–24; criticisms of, 48–49, 100, 110, 115–17, 123–24, 186–87; ghumāuri similarities to, 106–9, 114, 117–18; GNLF and, 54, 55, 79, 113, 223n15; Joint Bodies versus, 93, 95, 97–103; land reforms of, 68–69; maquiladoras and, 122; NGOs and, 85; after World War II, 51
value, gendered projects of, 12–16, 18, 22–23, 210, 213–18
“vernacular calculus of the economic,” 130, 145–46, 148–50
voluntourists, 25, 85–103, 219–20; criticisms of, 87, 95, 99–103, 124; daily routines for, 91–92, 203; documenting by, 87, 94–98, 103, 124; motivations of, 90
voting rights, 111
vyāpār garnu (doing transparent business), 136
wages, 107, 109, 120, 162; “being tied to,” 187–88; bonuses and, 48, 51, 81, 111, 114, 217, 227n14; collective bargaining of, 86–87, 102, 122–24; daily quotas for, 228n5; hazard pay and, 205; supplements to, 107, 158, 164, 192; Tea Board of India and, 113. See also collective bargaining; thikā
witnessing: documentation of, 87, 94–98, 103, 124; rituals of, 90–94
Wolf, Diana, 155
Wolf, Diane, 154
World Trade Organization (WTO), Geographical Indications Act of, 59
yojanas (development projects), 132, 136, 143, 149, 195, 209, 213
zamindāri (feudal domain), 183